1920 I Tolly ► Tombstone
Tolly, Mikhail Barclay de See Mikhail, Prince Barclay de Tolly
Tolman, Edward C(hace) (b. April 14, 1886, West Newton, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 19, 1959, Berkeley, Calif.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at the University of California at Berkeley (1918-54). Although he was a behaviourist, he considered classical behaviourism too reductive, and he therefore emphasized behavioral wholes and unmeasurable “intervening variables” over a strict focus on isolated reflexes. He also advanced the concept of “latent learning” (implicit, indirect learning). His major work was Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men (1932).
Tolstoy, Aleksey (Konstantinovich), Count (b. Sept. 5, 1817, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Oct. 10, 1875, Krasny Rog) Russian poet, novel¬ ist, and dramatist. A distant relative of Leo Tolstoy, he held various court posts. In the 1850s he began to publish comic verse, often satirizing gov¬ ernment bureaucracy. Among his popular historical novels is Prince Sere- brenni (1862). His dramatic trilogy about the 16th and 17th centuries— The Death of Ivan the Terrible (1866), Tsar Feodor Ioannovich (1868), and Tsar Boris (1870)—is written in blank verse and contains some of Russia’s best historical dramatic writing. His lyric poetry includes many love and nature poems, as well as Ioann Damaskin (1859), a paraphrase of St. John of Damascus’s prayer for the dead.
Tolstoy, Aleksey (Nikolayevich), Count (b. Jan. 10, 1883, Nikolayevsk, Russia—d. Feb. 23, 1945, Moscow) Russian writer. Dis¬ tantly related to the great novelist Leo Tolstoy, he supported the anti- Bolshevik White Army in the Russian Civil War, then emigrated to western Europe, where he wrote one of his finest works, the nostalgic, partly autobiographical Nikita’s Childhood (1921). In 1923 he returned to Russia as a supporter of the Soviet regime. He wrote many works that are purely entertaining and, in wartime, patriotic articles. He won three Sta¬ lin Prizes, for the novel trilogy The Road to Calvary (1920-41), the novel Peter the First (1929-45), and the play Ivan the Terrible (1943).
Tolstoy, Leo Russian Lev Nikolayevich, Count Tolstoy (b. Sept. 9, 1828, Yasnaya Polyana, Tula province, Russian Empire—d. Nov. 20, 1910, Astapovo, Ryazan province) Russian writer, one of the world’s greatest novelists. The scion of prominent aristocrats, Tolstoy spent much of his life at his family estate of Yasnaya Polyana. After a somewhat dis¬ solute youth, he served in the army and traveled in Europe before return¬ ing home and starting a school for peasant children. He was already known as a brilliant writer for the short stories in Sevastopol Sketches (1855-56) and the novel The Cossacks (1863) when War and Peace (1865-69) established him as Russia’s preeminent novelist. Set during the Napoleonic Wars, the novel examines the lives of a large group of char¬ acters, centring on the partly autobiographical figure of the spiritually questing Pierre. Its structure, with its flawless placement of complex char¬ acters in a turbulent historical setting, is regarded as one of the great tech¬ nical achievements in the history of the Western novel. His other great novel, Anna Karenina (1875-77), concerns an aristocratic woman who deserts her husband for a lover and the search for meaning by another autobiographical character. Levin. After its publication Tolstoy underwent a spiritual crisis and turned to a form of Christian anarchism. Advocating simplicity and nonviolence, he devoted himself to social reform. His later works include The Death of Ivan Ilich (1886), often considered the great¬ est novella in Russian literature, and What Is Art? (1898), which con¬ demns fashionable aestheticism and celebrates art’s moral and religious functions. He lived humbly on his great estate, practicing a radical asceti¬ cism and in constant conflict with his wife. In November 1910, unable to bear his situation any longer, he left his estate incognito. During his flight he contracted pneumonia, and he was dead within a few days.
Toltec Nahuatl-speaking people who held sway over what is now cen¬ tral Mexico from the 10th to the 12th century. Whether their urban cen¬ tre was Tula or Teotihuacan is a matter of dispute. In the 10th century they formed a number of small states of various ethnic origins into an empire. They introduced the cult of Quetzalcoatl, and other Toltec religious and military influences spread through the Yucatan region and were absorbed by the Maya. They were noted as builders and craftsmen; artifacts include fine metalwork, gigantic statues, and carved human and animal standard- bearers. They were succeeded by the Aztec. See also Mesoamerican civi¬ lization.
Toluca \to-'lu-ka\ in full Toluca de Lerdo City (pop., 2000: 435,125), capital of Mexico state, central Mexico. At an elevation of about 8,800 ft (2,680 m), it is one of the highest cities in North America. The site of the modern city, founded in 1530, was inhabited by the Otomi Indians by the
13th century. It is a commercial and communications centre in an agri¬ culture and livestock region. Its oldest church was founded soon after the Spanish conquest and rebuilt in 1585. There are many archaeological sites in the area, including some Aztec and Toltec ruins.
toluene Ytal-ya-.wenV Colourless, flammable, toxic liquid hydrocarbon aromatic compound (C 6 H 5 CH 3 ), the methyl derivative of benzene. Found in coal-tar light oil and in petroleum, it is obtained chiefly from the pro¬ cessing of petroleum fractions. It is used as a solvent, diluent, and thin¬ ner; as an antiknock additive in airplane gasoline; and as a raw material for TNT, benzoic acid and its derivatives, saccharin, dyes, photographic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.
tomato Any fruit of the numerous cultivated varieties of Lycopersicon esculentum, a plant of the nightshade family. The plant is generally much branched and has hairy, strongly odorous, feathery leaves. The droop¬ ing, clustered, yellow flowers are followed by red, scarlet, or yellow fruits, which hang from the many branches of one weak stem. The tomato fruit varies in shape from spherical to elongate and in size from 0.6 in. (1.5 cm) across to more than 3 in. (7.5 cm) across. The Spanish were bringing tomatoes from South America to Europe by the early 16th century; they were introduced to North America from Europe by the 1780s. Tomatoes are used raw, cooked as a vegetable or puree, and pickled, canned, and sun-dried. The term also applies to the fruit of L. pimpinelli folium, the tiny currant tomato.
tomato fruitworm See corn earworm
tomb Home or house for the dead. The term is applied loosely to all kinds of graves, funerary monuments, and memorials. Prehistoric tomb burial mounds, or barrows (artificial hills of earth and stones piled over the remains), were usually built around a hut containing personal effects for use in the afterlife. Burial mounds were a prominent feature of the Tumulus period in Japan (3rd-6th century); these often spectacular monu¬ ments consisted of earthen keyhole-shaped mounds surrounded by moats. Burial mounds, sometimes shaped like animals, were characteristic also of Indian cultures of eastern central North America c. 1000 bc-ad 700. With more advanced technology, brick and stone tombs appeared, often of imposing size. In Egypt tombs assumed great importance, especially in the form of pyramids. In medieval Christian thought, the tomb became a symbol of a heavenly home; this concept appeared in the Roman cata¬ combs, whose walls display scenes of paradise. Since the Renaissance, the idea of the tomb as a home has died out in the West, except as a faint reminiscence in the mausoleums or vaults of modern cemeteries. See also BEEHIVE tomb, CENOTAPH, MASTABA, STELE.
Tomba, Alberto (b. Dec. 19, 1966, San Lazzaro di Savena, Italy) Ital¬ ian Alpine skier. Tomba was born near Bologna and learned to ski there. He won three Olympic gold medals (1988, slalom and giant slalom; 1992, giant slalom), one Alpine World Cup championship (1995), and two World Championship of Skiing gold medals (1996, slalom and giant slalom). He had no success at the 1998 Olympics but won a slalom event at the World Cup in March of that year and then retired from skiing. He achieved a level of fame unusual for an Alpine skier because of his flamboyance on and off the slopes.