tongue Muscular organ on the floor of the mouth. It is important in motions of eating, drinking, and swallowing, and its complex movements shape the sounds of speech. Its top surface consists of thousands of raised projections (papillae). The receptors of taste (taste buds) are embedded in the papillae and are sensitive to four basic flavours: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. More specific flavours are influenced by the sense of smell. The tongue’s appearance (e.g., coated or red) can give clues to disease else¬ where. Disorders of the tongue include cancer (often caused by smoke¬ less tobacco), leukoplakia (white patches), fungal infection, and congenital disorders. Different animals use the tongue to serve varied func¬ tions; for example, frogs have an elongated tongue adapted to capturing prey, the snake’s tongue collects and transfers odours to a specialized sensory structure to help locate prey, and cats use their tongues for groom¬ ing and cleaning.
tongues, speaking in or glossolalia Utterances approximating words and speech that are nonetheless generally unintelligible, usually produced during states of trance or delirium. The religious interpretation of the phenomenon is that the speaker is possessed by a supernatural spirit, is in conversation with divine beings, or is the channel of a divine proc¬ lamation. Speaking in tongues occurred in ancient Greek religion and is
Bracket clock with oak case, ebony veneer, and gilt bronze mounts by Tom¬ pion, c. 1690; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London
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1922 I Tonkin ► Topeka
mentioned in the New Testament. According to The Acts of the Apostles, it first occurred among followers of Jesus at Pentecost and reappeared wherever conversion to Christianity occurred. St. Paul claimed to have been adept at it but urged restraint in the practice. Today it is mainly asso¬ ciated with charismatic Protestant movements such as Pentecostausm.
Tonkin Former French protectorate, mainland Southeast Asia, now con¬ stituting the greater part of northern Vietnam. It was part of China from the 2nd century bc until the Vietnamese won independence in the 10th century ad. The French seized the area in 1883, making it a protectorate; it was joined with other regions controlled by France in 1887 to form French Indochina. It was the chief focus in the area of anti-French fight¬ ing after World War II.
Tonkin, Gulf of Arm of the South China Sea, between northern Viet¬ nam and Hainan Island, China. It is 300 mi (500 km) long and 150 mi (250 km) wide. In 1964 the Vietnamese reportedly fired on U.S. ships there, leading the U.S. Congress to adopt the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that supported increased U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
Tonkin Gulf Resolution See Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Tonle Sap \ton-'la-'sap\ Lake, western Cambodia. The largest freshwa¬ ter body in mainland Southeast Asia, it receives several tributaries as well as the floodwaters of the Mekong River. During the rainy season its area increases from 1,000 sq mi (2,600 sq km) to about 9,500 sq mi (25,000 sq km). At low water it is little more than a reed-infested swamp, with channels for fishing craft. A large carp-breeding and carp-harvesting industry there supports numerous floating fishing villages. The ruins of Angkor lie near its northwestern shore.
Tonnies Vtcen-yosV Ferdinand (Julius) or Ferdinand (Julius) Toennies (b. July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort, Schleswig—d. April 9, 1936, Kiel, Ger.) German sociologist. From 1881 he taught principally at the University of Kiel. In Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887; “Com¬ munity and Society”), he explored the differences between the organic conception of society, or Gemeinschaft (“community,” a social union based on traditional rules and a shared sense of solidarity), and the social- contract conception of society, or Gesellschaft (“society,” a social union held together by rational self-interest). In practice, he argued, all societ¬ ies show elements of both kinds of organization, because human conduct is neither wholly instinctive nor wholly reasoned.
tonsil Small mass of lymphoid tissue in the wall of the pharynx. The term usually refers to the palatine tonsils on each side of the oropharynx. They are thought to produce antibodies to help prevent respiratory and diges¬ tive tract infection but often become infected themselves (see tonsillitis), mostly in children. There are also pharyngeal tonsils, better known as adenoids, and lingual tonsils, at the base of the tongue. The last have more effective drainage than the others and are rarely infected.
tonsillitis Inflammatory infection of the tonsils, usually with hemolytic streptococci (see streptococcus) or viruses. The symptoms are sore throat, trouble in swallowing, fever, and enlarged lymph nodes on the neck. The infection, which usually lasts about five days, is treated with bed rest and antiseptic gargling. Sulfa drugs or other antibiotics are prescribed in severe bacterial infections to prevent complications. Streptococcal infec¬ tion can spread to nearby structures. Complications may include abscess, nephritis, and rheumatic fever. Tonsils that become chronically inflamed and enlarged require surgical removal (tonsillectomy).
Tony Awards Annual awards for distinguished achievement in the U.S. theatre. Named for the actress-producer Antoinette (Tony) Perry (1888— 1946), the annual awards were established in 1947 by the American The¬ atre Wing and are intended to recognize excellence in plays and musicals staged on Broadway. Awards are given for best play, best musical, best play revival, and best musical revival, and in categories such as acting, directing, music, choreography, set design, and costume design.
tool Device for making material changes on other objects, as by cutting, shearing, striking, rubbing, grinding, squeezing, measuring, or other pro¬ cess. A hand tool is a small manual instrument traditionally operated by the muscular strength of the user; a machine tool is a power-driven mecha¬ nism used to cut, shape, or form materials such as wood and metal. Tools are the main means by which human beings control and manipulate their physical environment.
tool and die making Industrial art of manufacturing stamping dies, plastics molds, and jigs and fixtures to be used in the mass production of
solid objects. The making of dies for punch PRESSes constitutes most of the work done in tool and die shops, and most such pressworking dies are used in the manufacture of sheet-metal parts such as the panels of an automobile body. See also machine tool.
tool steel Specialty steels that are produced in small quantities, contain expensive alloys, and are often sold only by the kilogram and by their individual trade names. They are generally very hard, wear-resistant, tough, nonreactive to local overheating, and frequently engineered to par¬ ticular service requirements. They must be dimensionally stable during hardening and tempering. They contain strong carbide formers such as tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and chromium in different combina¬ tions, and often cobalt or nickel to improve high-temperature perfor¬ mance. See also high-speed steel.
Toombs, Robert A(ugustus) (b. July 2, 1810, Wilkes county, Ga., U.S.—d. Dec. 15, 1885, Washington, Ga.) U.S. politician. He was a plan¬ tation owner and a lawyer. He served in the U.S. House of Representa¬ tives (1845-53) and the Senate (1853-61), but he resigned his Senate seat to help form the Confederate States of America. Disappointed at not being chosen its president, he served briefly as secretary of state (1861). He criticized Jefferson Davis’s extralegal policies during the American Civil War and after the war fled to England. He returned to Georgia in 1867 to rebuild his law practice and to help revise the state constitution and restore white supremacy.
Toomer, Jean orig. Nathan Eugene Toomer (b. Dec. 26, 1894, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. March 30, 1967, Doylestown, Pa.) U.S. poet and novelist of the Harlem Renaissance. He taught briefly before turning to writing. Cane (1923), considered his best work, is an experimental novel that depicts the experience of being black in the U.S.; it had a strong influence on younger black writers. He also wrote for The Dial and other small magazines. He visited the Gurdjieff Institute in France in 1926 and led Gurdjieff groups in Harlem and Chicago. He became a Quaker in 1940. Ambivalent about his mixed racial background and preoccupied with spiritual matters, he avoided race issues in subsequent works.