trade agreement Any contractual arrangement between states con¬ cerning their trade relations. Trade agreements may be bilateral or mul¬ tilateral, that is, between two states or more than two. For most countries international trade is regulated by unilateral barriers, including tariffs, nontariff barriers, and government prohibitions. Trade agreements aim to reduce such barriers and thus provide all parties with the benefits of increased trade. Reciprocity is a necessary feature of trade agreements, since neither state will be willing to sign the agreement unless it expects to gain as much as it loses. Another common feature is a most-favoured¬ nation clause, which provides against the possibility that one of the par¬ ties to the current agreement will later offer lower tariffs to another country. Agreements often include clauses providing for “national treat¬ ment of nontariff restrictions,” meaning that both states promise not to duplicate the properties of tariffs with nontariff restrictions such as dis¬ criminatory regulations, selective excise taxes, quotas, and special licens¬ ing requirements. General multilateral agreements are sometimes easier to reach than separate bilateral agreements, since the gains to efficient producers from worldwide tariff reductions are large enough to warrant substantial concessions. The most important modem multilateral trade agreement was the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which reduced world tariff levels and greatly expanded world trade. Such agree¬ ments continue under the aegis of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which replaced GATT in 1995. See also NAFTA.
trade show or trade fair Temporary market organized to promote trade, where buyers and sellers gather to transact business. Trade fairs are organized at regular intervals, generally at the same location and time of year. They are especially common in Europe and Asia, where nearly every country has at least one major annual international exposition. They range in scope from those dealing with one industry or branch of industrial pro¬ duction to general exhibits of goods and merchandise. Trade shows and conventions confined to a single industry or even to a specialized seg¬ ment of an industry have become increasingly common.
trademark Mark used by a manufacturer or merchant to identify the origin or ownership of goods and to distinguish them from others. Trade¬ marks may be words or groups of words, letters, numerals, devices, names, the shape or other presentation of products or their packages, or combinations of colours. A trademark (indicated by ™ or, when regis¬ tered, by the symbol ®) is considered the property of the holder and is protected by law from unauthorized use by others. In most countries, reg¬ istration is a prerequisite for ownership and protection of the mark. In the U.S., however, the trademark right is granted by the mere use of the mark, though registration often proves legally advantageous. See also copyright.
Trades Union Congress (TUC) National organization of British labour unions. It was founded in 1868 to hold annual conferences of inde¬ pendent unions. It included only skilled workers until 1889, when unions of unskilled workers were admitted. In 1900 the TUC helped found a separate labour organization, the Labour Representation Committee, renamed the Labour Party in 1906. After World War I the TUC was gov¬ erned by a General Council, which had powers to deal with interunion conflicts and intervene in disputes with employers. In the 1930s and ’40s, it was the spokesman for industrial labour in dealings with the govern¬ ment. The organization continued to help formulate economic policy until 1979, when a Conservative government came to power, leading to a decline in TUC membership in the 1980s. In the late 1990s, under Labour prime minister Tony Bair, the TUC was encouraged to back “workplace partnerships” between unions and employers.
Trafalgar \tro-'fal-g3r\, Battle of (Oct. 21, 1805) Naval engagement in the Napoleonic Wars that established British naval supremacy in Europe. It was fought west of Cape Trafalgar, Spain, between a Franco- Spanish fleet of 33 ships under Pierre de Villeneuve (1763-1806) and a
British fleet of 27 ships under Horatio Nelson. As Villeneuve tried to slip out of the besieged port of Cadiz, he was caught by Nelson. The French ships formed a single line and were attacked by the English at two points. After sending the famous signal “England expects that every man will do his duty,” Nelson broke through the centre of the French line and in the pell-mell battle captured Villeneuve and 20 ships. Near the end of the battle. Nelson was mortally wounded by a sniper. No British ships were lost, and Napoleon abandoned his plan to invade England.
tragedy Drama of a serious and dignified character that typically describes the development of a conflict between the protagonist and a superior force (such as destiny, circumstance, or society) and reaches a sorrowful or disastrous conclusion. Tragedy of a high order has been cre¬ ated in three periods and locales, each with a characteristic emphasis and style: Attica, in Greece, in the 5th century bc; Elizabethan and Jacobean England (1558-1625); and 17th-century France. The idea of tragedy also found embodiment in other literary forms, especially the novel. See also COMEDY.
tragicomedy Literary genre consisting of dramas that combine ele¬ ments of tragedy and comedy. Pautus coined the Latin word tragicoco- moedia to denote a play in which gods and mortals, masters and slaves reverse the roles traditionally assigned to them. In the Renaissance and after, tragicomedy was mainly comic, though Elizabethan and Jacobean tragedies almost always include some comic or grotesque elements. Mod¬ em tragicomedy is sometimes used synonymously with absurdist drama, which suggests that laughter is the only response left to people faced with an empty and meaningless existence.
Traherne Vtro-'harnV Thomas (b. 1637, Hereford, Eng.—d. 1674, Teddington) English mystical poet and religious writer. He was ordained in the Anglican church in 1660. Most of his works were unknown for centuries. The discovery in 1896 in a London street bookstall of the manu¬ scripts of Poetical Works (1903) and the prose Centuries of Meditations (1908) created a literary sensation. Later the manuscript of Poems of Felicity (1910) was discovered in the British Museum. His poetry, though sometimes original and intense, is overshadowed by his vivid prose.
Trail of Tears Forced migration of the Cherokee Indians in 1838-39. In 1835, when gold was discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia, a small minority of Cherokee ceded all tribal land east of the Mississippi for $5 million. The U.S. Supreme Court invalidated the deal, but the ruling was ignored by state officials and Pres. Andrew Jackson refused to enforce it. The subsequent eviction and 116-day forced march of thousands of Chero¬ kee to Oklahoma was badly mismanaged, and inadequate food supply, frigid weather, and the cruelty of escorting troops led to the death of about 4,000 Cherokee.
trailing arbutus \ar-'byu-t3s\ or mayflower Trailing evergreen plant ( Epigaea repens) of the heath family, native to sandy or boggy, acidic woodlands of eastern North America. Its leaves are oblong and hairy, and its white, pink, or rosy flowers grow in dense clusters. It is grown in shady wildflower gardens and as ground cover in terraria.
training, transfer of In psychology, the effect of having learned one activity on an individual’s execution of other activities. Positive transfer occurs when a previously acquired skill enhances one’s performance of a new one. Negative transfer occurs when the previously acquired skill impairs one’s attempt to master the new one.
Trajan Vtra-j9n\ in full Caesar Divi Nervae Filius Nerva Tra- ianus Optimus Augustus or Caesar Nerva Traianus Ger- manicus orig. Marcus Ulpius Traianus (b. Sept. 15?, ad 53, Ital- ica, Baetica—d. Aug. 8/9, 117, Seli- nus, Cilicia) Roman emperor (98- 117), the first born outside Italy. He had military commands in Asia and Europe before being named consul in 91. In 97 he was adopted by Nerva as his successor. After Nerva’s death in 98, he deified the former emperor and named himself Jupiter’s repre-