Universal Time Mean (solar) time of the Greenwich meridian (0° lon¬ gitude). Universal Time replaced the designation Greenwich Mean Time in 1928; since 1972 it has been based on international atomic time, a uni-
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Universalism ► Ur I 1973
form time derived from the frequences of certain atomic transitions and measured by an atomic clock. For most purposes, it is now identical to Greenwich Mean Time.
Universalism Belief in the salvation of all souls. Arising as early as the time of Origen and at various points in Christian history, the concept became an organized movement in North America in the mid-18th cen¬ tury. It maintains the impossibility that a loving God would bestow sal¬ vation on only a portion of humankind while dooming the rest to eternal punishment. It stresses the use of reason in religion and the modification of belief in light of the discoveries of science. Thus, the miraculous ele¬ ments of traditional Christianity are rejected, and Jesus, while a worthy teacher and model, is not held to be divine. Universalist and Unitarian churches in the U.S. merged in 1961 (see Unitarianism).
universe Whole cosmic system of matter and energy of which Earth is a part. Its main constituents are the galaxies, within which are stars and stellar groupings and nebulae (see nebula). Earth’s Sun is one star among the billions of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. All atoms, subatomic par¬ ticles, and everything they compose are also part of the universe. The uni¬ verse is governed by four fundamental forces: the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and gravitation. Numerous theories have been proposed for the origin and structure of the universe. See also big bang; cosmology; expanding universe; steady-state theory.
university Institution of higher education, usually comprising a liberal arts and sciences college and graduate and professional schools that con¬ fer degrees in various fields. A university differs from a college in that it is usually larger, has a broader curriculum, and offers advanced degrees in addition to undergraduate degrees. The first true university was the University of Bologna, founded in the 11th century; the first in northern Europe was the University of Paris, which served as a model for the uni¬ versities of Oxford, Cambridge, Heidelberg, and others. One of the first modern universities, in which secular objectivity and rationalism replaced religious orthodoxy, was the University of Halle (founded 1694 in Halle, Ger.). The liberalism of Halle was adopted by Gottingen, Berlin, and many other German universities. The German model of the university as a com¬ plex of schools and research institutes also exerted a worldwide influ¬ ence. The growth of universities in the U.S., where most colleges had been established by religious denominations, was greatly spurred by the Mor¬ rill Act of 1862.
UNIX Vyii -niks\ Operating system for digital computers, developed by Ken Thompson of Bell Laboratories in 1969. It was initially designed for a single user (the name was a pun on the earlier operating system Multics). The C language was subsequently developed specifically for UNIX, and the system was rewritten almost entirely in C; it was improved by the addition of multiprogramming and time-sharing capabilities and enhanced portability. UNIX is very popular in universities, where it is used mostly on scientific and engineering workstations, and it is used on most of the servers of Internet service providers. Because its modular construction allows it to be easily modified, it has been improved in many ways by academic and industrial institutions (see Linux).
Unkei Vun-,ka\ (b. 1148?—d. 1223) Japanese sculptor. He established a style of realistic and dynamic Buddhist sculpture that had an immense impact on Japanese art for centuries. Commissioned by the Kamakura sho- gunate, he made statues for the Kofuku and Todai temples in Nara and is best remembered for the nearly 26-ft (8-m) tall guardian figures at Todai temple’s Great South Gate. He later produced many portrait sculptures.
Unkiar Skelessi, Treaty of See Treaty of Hunkar Lkelesi
Unser, Bobby and Al in full Robert William Unser and Alfred Unser (respectively b. Feb. 20, 1934, Albuquerque, N.M., U.S.; b. May 29, 1939, Albuquerque, N.M., U.S.) U.S. automobile-racing drivers. The Unser brothers were born into a family of drivers and began driving at an early age. Both won the Pikes Peak hill climb and various U.S. Auto¬ mobile Club races before competing in the Indianapolis 500, which Bobby won in 1968, 1975, and 1981, and Al in 1970, 1971, 1978, and 1987. Al’s son Al Unser, Jr. (b. 1962), won the same race in 1992 and 1994.
Unterwalden Yiin-tor-.val-donX Former canton, central Switzerland. It was ruled after 1173 by the Habsburg counts. In 1291, with Uri and Schwyz, it formed the Everlasting League, which became the nucleus of the Swiss Confederation. In 1340 it divided into two sovereign half can¬ tons, Nidwalden and Obwalden; in 1803 they became demicantons hav¬ ing equal rights.
untouchable Former classification of various low-status persons and those outside the Hindu caste system in Indian society. The term Dalit is now used for such people (in preference to Mohandas K. Gandhi’s term, Harijan, which was considered condescending by the Dalit themselves), and their plight is recognized by the Indian constitution and by legisla¬ tion. The groups traditionally considered untouchable included people whose occupations or habits of life involved activities considered to be polluting, such as taking life for a living (e.g., fishermen); killing or dis¬ posing of dead cattle or working with their hides; coming into contact with human waste (e.g., sweepers); and eating flesh of cattle, pigs, or chickens. Many untouchables converted to other religions to escape dis¬ crimination. Indian law now categorizes the Dalit under the term sched¬ uled castes and accords them certain special privileges.
upanayana V.u-po-'no-yo-noX Hindu initiation ritual, restricted to the three upper varnas. It marks a male’s entrance into the life of a student and his acceptance as a full member of the religious community. After a ritual bath, the boy, aged 5-24, is dressed as an ascetic and brought before his guru, who invests him with various symbolic articles. The initiate receives a sacred thread, worn throughout his life, that identifies him as twice-born, the second birth being effected by receipt of a mantra. Obser¬ vance of upanayana is decreasing and is now largely confined to the Brah¬ man class.
Upanishad \u-'pa-ni-,shad\ Any of 108 speculative texts of the Vedas that contain elaborations in poetry and verse. They are believed to have been composed since 500 bc, based on teachings circulated since 1000 bc. They represent the final stage in the tradition of the Vedas, and the teach¬ ing based on them is called Vedanta. Generally the Upanishads are con¬ cerned with the nature of reality, the individual soul (atman), and the universal soul (Brahman) and with the theory of the transmigration of souls and the nature of morality.
upasaka Ui-'pa-so-koV Lay devotee of the Buddha. Originally the term applied to followers of the Buddha who were not ordained as bhiksus; today it is normally applied, mainly in Southeast Asia, to pious individuals who visit the local monastery on the weekly holy days and who undertake spe¬ cial vows. They support the sangha with regular offerings and observe the five precepts expected of all Buddhists: to abstain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and using intoxicants.
UPC See Universal Product Code
Updike, John (Hoyer) (b. March 18, 1932, Shillington, Pa., U.S.) U.S. writer. He attended Harvard University and in 1955 began a long association with The New Yorker. His works are known for careful crafts¬ manship and for their subtle depiction of American middle-class life. His famous “Rabbit” tetralogy— Rabbit, Run (1960), Rabbit Redux (1971), Rabbit Is Rich (1981, Pulitzer Prize), and Rabbit at Rest (1990, Pulitzer Prize)—follows a very ordinary American man through the decades of the later 20th century. A Jewish novelist named Bech is the subject of three other novels. Updike’s other fiction includes The Centaur (1963), Of the Farm (1965), Couples (1968), The Witches ofEastwick{ 1984; film, 1987), and In the Beauty of the Lilies (1996). He has also published short- story collections, including Pigeon Feathers (1962), several volumes of reviews and essays, and light verse.