'Uthman ibn 'Affan Nuth-'man-.i-bon-af-'fanV (d. June 17, 656, Medina, Arabia) Third caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. Bom into the pow¬ erful Umayyad clan of Mecca, he became a wealthy merchant before con¬ verting to Islam; he was the first convert of high social and economic standing. He married a daughter of Muhammad. On the death of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (644), ‘Uthman was chosen as his successor. His reign as caliph was marked by nepotism and personal profit, and he made many enemies. His accomplishments included centralizing the administration of the caliphate and establishing an official version of the Qu’ran. His death at the hands of rebels marked the beginning of the first fitnah.
Utica \'yu-ti-ko\ Ancient Phoenician settlement, North Africa. Consid¬ ered the oldest Phoenician settlement, it was located in what is now mod¬ ern Tunisia. After its founding (c. 8th century bc), it grew rapidly and was second in importance only to Carthage. Made the capital of the Roman province of Africa after the Third Punic War (149-146 bc), it later declined after the emperor Augustus rebuilt Carthage. Excavations have uncovered Phoenician graves dating from the 8th century bc and a substantial resi¬ dential section of the Roman city. See also Punic Wars.
utilitarianism Ethical principle according to which an action is right if it tends to maximize happiness, not only that of the agent but also of everyone affected. Thus, utilitarians focus on the consequences of an act rather than on its intrinsic nature or the motives of the agent (see conse- quentialism). Classical utilitarianism is hedonist, but values other than, or in addition to, pleasure (ideal utilitarianism) can be employed, or—more neutrally, and in a version popular in economics—anything can be regarded as valuable that appears as an object of rational or informed
desire (preference utilitarianism). The test of utility maximization can also be applied directly to single acts (act utilitarianism), or to acts only indi¬ rectly through some other suitable object of moral assessment, such as rules of conduct (rule utilitarianism). Jeremy Bentham’s Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) and John Stuart Mill’s Utili¬ tarianism (1863) are major statements of utilitarianism.
Uto-Aztecan X.yii-to-'az-.te-konX languages Family of more than 30 American Indian languages spoken in pre-Columbian times from the northern Great Basin to Central America. Geographically, Uto-Aztecan can be divided into a northern and a southern branch. The northern branch, spo¬ ken from Oregon and Idaho to southern California and Arizona, includes the languages of the Northern and Southern Paiutes, Utes, Northern and Eastern Shoshone, Comanche, and Hopi. The southern branch includes the languages of the O’odham (Pima and Papago) in Arizona, and of a number of Mexican Indian peoples, including the Tarahumara of Chihuahua, the Yaqui of northwestern Mexico and Arizona, and the Cora and Huichol of Nayarit and Jalisco; its southernmost extension includes Nahuatl.
utopian socialism Political and social idea of the mid-19th century. Adapted from such reformers as Robert Owen and Charles Fourier, uto¬ pian socialism drew from early communist and socialist ideas. Advocates included Louis Blanc, noted for his theory of worker-controlled “social workshops,” and John Humphrey Noyes, founder of the Oneida Community in the U.S. Utopian settlements were also attempted by religious groups such as the Mennonites, Shakers, and Mormons. See also Brook Farm.
Utrecht YiB-.trekt, 'yii-.trektN City (pop., 2001 est.: 256,420), central Netherlands. The site of successive Roman, Frisian, and Frankish for¬ tresses, it became an episcopal see in 696 under St. Willibrord. It was most prosperous during the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was an impor¬ tant commercial centre. In 1527 it was transferred to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and became part of the Habsburg dominions. It was ruled by Spain until the 1570s, when it became a centre of Protestant resistance. It was the site of the signing of the Union of Utrecht (1579), which established a league of northern Dutch provinces against Spain; the league was the basis of the future Netherlands kingdom. Occupied by the French (1795-1813), it was the residence of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland (1806-10). The only Dutch pope, Adrian VI, was born in Utre¬ cht. It is a transportation, financial, and insurance centre.
Utrecht, Peace of (1713 -14) Series of treaties concluding the War of the Spanish Succession. One series was signed between France and other European powers; another series was signed between Spain and other powers. France concluded treaties with Britain, the Dutch Republic, Prus¬ sia, Portugal, and Savoy, in which it ceded various territories, including regions in Canada, to Britain. France also recognized Queen Anne as the British sovereign, acknowledged Frederick I’s royal title, and recognized Victor Amadeus II as king of Sicily. Spain ceded Gibraltar to Britain. In a separate accord, the asiento agreement, Spain gave Britain the exclusive right to supply the Spanish colonies with African slaves for 30 years. Emperor Charles VI concluded a separate peace with France in the Treaty of Rastatt and Baden. The Spanish succession was settled in favour of the Bourbon Philip V. The treaties gave Britain the largest portion of colonial and commercial spoils and made it the leader in world trade.
Utrecht school Principally a group of three Dutch painters from Utrecht —Dirck van Baburen (c. 1590-1624), Gerrit van Honthorst, and Hendrik Terbrugghen —who were greatly influenced by Caravaggio’s art during travels to Rome. They used their newly learned technique in art¬ work with primarily religious subject matter, but also produced brothel scenes and pictures in sets, such as five works devoted to the senses. The numerous candles, lanterns, and other sources of artificial light in their paintings also differentiate them from Caravaggio, who never used such devices. Honthorst enjoyed the widest reputation at the time, but Terbrug¬ ghen is now considered the most talented and versatile of the group.
Utrillo \tE-tre-'yo,\ English Xyti-'tri-loV Maurice (b. Dec. 25, 1883, Paris, Fr.—d. Nov. 5, 1955, Le Vesinet) French painter. When he became an alcoholic in his teens, his mother, the painter and model Suzanne Val¬ adon, encouraged him to take up painting as therapy; it soon became his obsession. He had no formal artistic training and was interested prima¬ rily in reproducing what he saw as faithfully as possible. Most of his compositions depict the old, deteriorating houses and streets of the Mont¬ martre district of Paris. His best work is that of his “white period” (c. 1908-14), so called for his lavish use of zinc white in heavy layers to build up aging, cracked walls. See photograph on opposite page.
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Uttar Pradesh ► Uzi submachine gun I 1979
Uttar Pradesh Vu-tor-pro-'dashX formerly United Provinces of Agra and Oudh State (pop., 2001: 166,197,921), north-central India. It is bordered by Nepal, the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Raja¬ sthan, Haryana, and Uttaranchal, and Delhi national capital territory and covers an area of 93,933 sq mi (243,286 sq km); its capital is Lucknow. The state, the most populous in the country, lies largely in the plains formed by the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. The region was the setting of two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, and the scene of the rise of Buddhism after the 6th century bc. It was ruled by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the mid-3rd century bc, the Gupta dynasty (c. ad 320-c. 415), and King Harsa (606-647). The Mughals gained control in the 16th century, at which time the city of Agra became a chief centre. The British arrived in the late 18th century; by the 1830s they held sway and eventu¬ ally formed the North-Western Provinces, to which Oudh was later annexed. The area was the main scene of the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The current province was formed in 1902 and became a state of India in 1947. In 2000 the northern portion of it was made into the state of Uttaranchal. Uttar Pradesh is a major silica-producing state, yet agriculture is its most important economic sector. Its noted tourist meccas are Agra and Varanasi.