Vinci, Leonardo da See Leonardo da Vinci
vine Plant whose stem requires support and that climbs by tendrils or twining or creeps along the ground, or the stem of such a plant. Examples include bittersweet, most grapes, some honeysuckles, ivy, lianas, and melons.
vinegar Sour liquid obtained by fermentation of dilute alcoholic liquids. Probably first made from wine (French vinaigre means “sour wine”), vin¬ egar may also be made from malted barley, rice, cider, or other substances. The source substance, which must contain sugar, is fermented by yeast to produce alcohol. The alcohol is then aerated, which causes it to convert, through the action of Acetobacter bacteria, to acetic acid, water, and vari¬ ous other compounds. Vinegar is used in pickling meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables and in creating marinades, dressings, and other sauces.
Vingt \'va n \, Les or Les XX French The Twenty Group of Symbol¬ ist artists, including James Ensor, Fernand Khnopff, and Henry van de Velde, who exhibited in Belgium during 1891-93. Belgian Symbolist painting employed simplified forms, heavy outlines, a subjective use of colour, and a heightened spiritual content inspired by religious, exotic, and “primitive” cultures. The styles of various members of Les Vingt eventually merged into the new Art Nouveau style.
Vinland Wooded land in North America visited and named by Leif Eriks¬ son the Lucky c. ad 1000. It was probably located along the Atlantic coast of what is now eastern or northeastern Canada. The Vikings’ visits to Vin¬ land (named “wine land” for its wild grapes) are recorded in the Norse sagas. Leif Eriksson is said to have led the first expedition, and his brother Thorvald a second one c. 1003. A colonizing expedition of 130 Vikings c. 1004 was abandoned after warfare with the native Indians. The final expedition was led c. 1013 by Erik the Red’s daughter Freydis. In 1963 the remains of a Norse settlement were discovered at L'Anse aux Meadows, at the northernmost tip of Newfoundland.
Vinson, Fredferick Moore) (b. Jan. 22, 1890, Louisa, Ky., U.S.—d. Sept. 8, 1953, Washington, D.C.) U.S. jurist. He served in Congress for all but two years during the period 1923 to 1938. After serving on the U.S. Court of Appeals (1938-43), he held high executive positions, including secretary of the treasury under Pres. Harry Truman. He helped establish the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Monetary Fund. From 1946 to 1953 he was chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. During his tenure he favoured Truman’s internal security policies and upheld the equal-protection rights of racial minorities.
Vinson Massif Mountain, Sentinel Range, central Ellsworth Moun¬ tains, western Antarctica. Rising 16,066 ft (4,897 m), the Vinson Massif is the highest mountain on the continent. It was discovered in 1935 by U.S. explorer Lincoln Ellsworth.
vinyl chloride or chloroethylene Colourless, flammable, toxic gas (H 2 C=CHC1), belonging to the family of organic compounds of halo¬ gens. It is produced in very large quantities and used principally to make PVC, as well as in other syntheses and in adhesives. Prolonged exposure to vinyl chloride is linked to several kinds of cancer.
viol Vvl-ol, 'vI-,ol\ or viola da gamba We-.o-lo-do-'gam-boV Bowed stringed instrument of the 16th—18th centuries. The viols are distinguished from the violin family particularly by a fretted fingerboard, sloping shoul¬ ders, flat back, six strings, and milder tone. They exist in four sizes: treble, tenor, bass, and double bass (violone). They are played vertically, the body of the instrument being held between the legs or rested on the knee. The
viol family appeared in the late 15th century and soon became widely popular and acquired a large repertory. Throughout the Baroque era, the bass viol joined the harpsichord in the basso continuo. The contempora¬ neous violin family, having a more penetrating tone, gradually displaced the viols in the 18th century.
viola \vI-'o-b, ve-'6-b\ Stringed instrument, the tenor member of the vio¬ lin family. In appearance it is almost identical to the violin but slightly larger; its strings are tuned a fifth lower. It is a member of many chamber music ensembles, and the modern orchestra uses 6 to 10 violas. Its tone is darker, warmer, and less powerful than the violin’s, and it is rarely employed as a solo instrument. The viola d’amore is an 18th-century instrument with six or seven melody strings, under which are strung sev¬ eral sympathetic strings that resonate in concord with the sounded pitches.
violet Any of the approximately 500 species of herbaceous plants or low shrubs that make up the genus Viola, which includes the small, solid- coloured violets and the larger-flowered, often multicoloured violas and pansies. Many Viola species have two types of flowers: the showy spring flower is infertile; the less conspicuous summer flower is self-fertilizing. The best-known species of Viola have heart-shaped leaves. The popular florist’s violets, consisting of several hybrids (many of them V. odorata), are usually called sweet violets. The family Violaceae, to which Viola belongs, has members worldwide; they are typically small trees and shrubs that grow as low vegetation beneath the taller trees of forests. The so-called African violet belongs to the gesneriad family. See also dogtooth violet.
violin Bowed stringed instrument. The violin is the highest-pitched mem¬ ber of a family of instruments that includes the viola, cello, and double bass. It has a fretless fingerboard, four strings, and a distinctively shaped wooden body whose “waist” permits freedom of bowing. The violin is held on the shoulder and bowed with the right hand. It has a wide range of more than four octaves. It evolved in Italy in the 16th century from the medieval fiddle and other instruments. Its average proportions were settled by the 17th century, but innovations in the 18th-19th centuries increased its tonal power. With its brilliance, agility, and singing tone, the violin has been immensely important in Western art music, and it has the largest and most distinguished repertoire of any stringed instrument. From the mid-17th century it has been the foundation of the symphony orches¬ tra, which today usually includes 20-26 violins, and it is also widely used in chamber music and as a solo instrument. It is played as a folk instru¬ ment in many countries, folk violins being often called fiddles.
Viollet-le-Duc V.ve-o-'la-b-'dtikV Eugene-Emmanuel (b. Jan. 27, 1814, Paris, France—d. Sept. 17,
1879, Lausanne, Switz.) French Gothic Revival architect, restorer, and writer. After studying architecture and training as an archaeologist, he was placed in charge of restoring the abbey church at Vezelay (1840). He assisted in restoring the Sainte- Chapelle (1840) and Notre-Dame de Paris (1845) and supervised the res¬ toration of many other medieval buildings, including Amiens Cathe¬ dral (1849) and the fortifications of Carcassonne (1852). In his later res¬ torations he often added new ele¬ ments of his own design, intrusions for which he was criticized in the 20th century. He is most distin¬ guished for his writings, which include the Dictionnaire raisonne de l’architecture frangaise du Xle au XVIe siecle (1854-68) and Entre- tiens sur l’architecture (1858-72). His theories of rational architectural design linked the revivalism of the Romantic period to 20th-century Func¬ tionalism and influenced the architects of the Chicago School.
violoncello See cello
vipassana Wi-'pa-so-noV In Theravada Buddhism, a method of insight meditation. It aims at developing understanding of the nature of reality by focusing a sharply concentrated mind on physical and mental pro¬ cesses. The meditator comes to understand, through personal experience.
Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc.
ARCHIVES PHOTOGRAPHIQUES, PARIS
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the truths of dukkha (suffering), anicca (impermanence), and anatta (lack of an enduring self). It is a process of mental purification that leads to abandonment of the roots of unwholesome actions, eradication of igno¬ rance, and attainment of nirvana.