Bern City (pop., 2000 est: city, 128,600; metro, area, 317,300), capital of Switzerland. Lying along a loop of the Aare River, it was founded as a military post in 1191 by Berthold V, duke of Zahringen. It became a free imperial city in 1218. Gradually extending its power, it became an inde¬ pendent state, and in 1353 it entered the Swiss Confederation. It was a scene of disputation in 1528 between Roman Catholics and reformers, which led to its subsequent championing of Protestant doctrines. It became a member of the Helvetic Republic and in 1848 was made the capital of Switzerland. It is headquarters of the international postal, rail¬ way, and copyright unions.
Bern Convention officially International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works International agree¬ ment adopted in Bern, Switz., in 1886 to protect copyrights on an inter¬ national basis. It was modified several times throughout the 20th century. Its signatories constitute the Bern Copyright Union. Each member coun¬ try grants the authors of other member countries the same rights that its laws grant its own nationals. Protected works include every kind of lit¬ erary, scientific, and artistic production, regardless of mode of expression, including paintings, sculptures, architectural plans, and musical arrange¬ ments. Copyright is now protected for 70 years after the creator’s death.
Bernadette of Lourdes, Saint orig. Marie-Bernarde Soubir-
ous (b. Jan. 7, 1844, Lourdes, France—d. April 16, 1879, Nevers; can¬ onized Dec. 8, 1933; feast day April 16, but sometimes February 18 in France) French visionary. The daughter of a miller, she had a poverty- stricken childhood and was often ill. In 1858 she had a series of visions of Mary; she defended their authenticity against the doubts of her parents, the clergy, and civil authorities. She joined the Sisters of Charity at Nev¬ ers (1866) and remained in seclusion until her death at 35. The grotto at Lourdes became a pilgrimage site; its waters are reputed to have healing powers.
Bernadotte \ber-na-'dot\ (af Wisborg), Folke, Count (b. Jan. 2, 1895, Stockholm, Swed.—d. Sept. 17, 1948, Jerusalem) Swedish soldier, humanitarian, and diplomat. A nephew of King Gustav V, Bernadotte headed the Swedish Red Cross in World War II and was credited with saving some 20,000 concentration-camp inmates. In 1948 he was appointed mediator in Palestine by the UN Security Council and secured a cease-fire between Israel and the Arab states. He made enemies by pro¬ posing that Arab refugees be allowed to return to their homes in what had become Israel and was assassinated by Jewish extremists.
Bernanos \ber-na-'nos\, Georges (b. Feb. 20,1888, Paris, France—d. July 5, 1948, Neuilly-sur-Seine) French novelist and polemical writer. One of the most original and independent Roman Catholic writers of his time and a man of humour and humanity, he abhorred materialism and compro¬ mise with evil. His masterpiece, The Diary of a Country Priest (1936), is
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206 I Bernard ► Bernini
the story of a young priest’s war against sin. Dialogues of the Carmelites (1949), a screenplay about 16 nuns martyred during the French Revolution, was the basis for an opera by Francis Poulenc (1957).
Bernard \ber-'nar\, Claude (b. July 12,1813, Saint-Julien, France—d. Feb. 10, 1878, Paris) French physiologist. He taught at several major French institutions and was named a senator in 1869. He discovered the role of the pancreas in digestion, the glycogenic function of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism, and blood-supply regulation by the vasomotor nerves. He helped establish the principles of experimentation in the life sciences, including the need for a hypothesis. His concept of the internal environment of the organism led to the present understanding of homeo¬ stasis. Bernard also studied the effects of such poisons as carbon monox¬ ide and curare. He was awarded the grand prize in physiology three times by the Academie des Sciences.
Bernard de Clairvaux \kler-'vb. Saint (b. 1090, probably Fontaine-les-Dijons, near Dijon, Burgundy—d. Aug. 20, 1153, Clairvaux, Champagne; canonized 1174; feast day August 20) French Cistercian monk, mystic, and doctor of the church. Born into an aristocratic family near Dijon, he turned away from a literary education for the monastic life, entering the austere religious community at Citeaux in 1112. As abbot of the Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux, Champagne, which he founded in 1115, he helped establish the widespread popularity of the order. Between 1130 and 1145 he mediated civil and ecclesiastical councils and theologi¬ cal debates, and his support for Pope Innocent II helped secure the papacy during the schism with Anacletus. Bernard was the confidant of five popes and became perhaps the most renowned religious figure in Europe. He actively preached the Second Crusade and wrote a number of sermons on the Song of Solomon. He opposed the teachings of Peter Abelard and Henry of Lausanne and defended devotion to the Virgin Mary.
Bernardine See Cistercian
Bernardine Vbor-nor-denX of Siena, Saint (b. Sept. 8, 1380, Massa Marittima, Siena—d. May 20, 1444, L’Aquila, Kingdom of the Two Sicil¬ ies; canonized 1450; feast day May 20) Franciscan priest and theologian. Born into a noble family but orphaned early, he entered the Observants (1402), a strict branch of the Franciscan order that he later helped to spread throughout Europe. In 1417 he began preaching tours in Italy, seeking to combat the lawlessness, strife, and immorality resulting from the Western Schism. Through the Council of Florence he worked to unite the Greek and Roman churches. Numerous miracles are said to have occurred at his tomb.
Bernays, Edward L. (b. Nov. 22, 1891, Vienna, Austria—d. March 9, 1995, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.) U.S. publicist, the “father of public relations.” A nephew of Sigmund Freud, he was born in Austria but was brought up in New York. In organizing endorsements for a play on the taboo subject of venereal disease, he found his calling as a publicist. His early clients included the U.S. War Department and the Lithuanian gov¬ ernment. He edited The Engineering of Consent (1955), whose title is his often-quoted definition of public relations. He died at the age of 103.
Berners-Lee, Tim (b. June 8, 1955, London, Eng.) British physicist. The son of computer scientists, he graduated from Oxford University and in 1980 accepted a fellowship at CERN in Geneva. In 1989 he suggested a global hypertext project. He and his CERN colleagues created a com¬ munications protocol called HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) that stan¬ dardized communication between computer servers and clients. Their text-based Web browser was released to the public in 1991, marking the beginnings of the World Wide Web and general public use of the Inter¬ net. He declined all opportunities to profit from his immensely valuable innovation. In 1994 he joined MIT’s Laboratory for Computer Science as director of the World Wide Web Consortium.
Bernese Alps German Berner Oberland X.bor-nsr-'o-bor-.lanA Segment of the Alps, Switzerland. It lies north of the Rhone River and south of Brienzer and Thuner lakes and extends east from Martigny-Ville to Grimsel Pass and the valley of the upper Aare River. Many peaks, includ¬ ing the Finsteraarhorn, Jungfrau, and Aletschhorn, rise more than 12,000 ft (3,660 m). The Bernese Alps are crossed by the Lotschen, Gemmi, and Pillon passes and the Lotschberg railway tunnel. Many resorts, including Interlaken, Grindelwald, and Gstaad, dot the area.
Bernese mountain dog Breed of Swiss working dog brought to Switzerland over 2,000 years ago by invading Romans. The hardy breed was widely used to pull carts and to drive cattle to and from their pas¬
tures. It has a broad chest, hanging V-shaped ears, and a long, silky, black coat. Markings include brown spots on the chest and forelegs and over the eyes, and sometimes white on the chest, nose, feet, and tail tip. The breed stands 21-28 in. (53-70 cm) high and weighs about 90 lbs (40 kg).