bourgeoisie X.burzh-.wa-'zeX In social and political theory, the social order dominated by the property-owning class. The term arose in medi¬ eval France, where it denoted the inhabitant of a walled town. The con¬ cept of the bourgeoisie is most closely associated with Karl Marx and those who were influenced by him. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie plays a heroic role in history by revolutionizing industry and moderniz¬ ing society; however, it also seeks to monopolize the benefits of modern¬ ization and exploit the property-less proletariat, thereby creating revolutionary tensions. The end result will be a final revolution in which the property of the bourgeoisie is expropriated and class conflict, exploi¬ tation, and the state are abolished. Much employed by 19th-century social reformers, the term had nearly disappeared from the vocabulary of politi¬ cal writers and politicians by the mid 20th century. In popular speech, it connotes philistinism, materialism, and a striving concern for “respect¬ ability.” See also social class.
Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of See Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
Bourguiba \bur-'ge-bo\, Habib (ibn Ali) (b. Aug. 3, 1903, Al-Munastlr, Tun.—d. April 6, 2000, Al-Munastlr) President of Tunisia (1957-87). He studied at the Sorbonne, where he met independence- minded Algerians and Moroccans. He founded a nationalist newspaper in 1932. In 1934 he founded the Neo-Destour Party and became central to the Tunisian liberation movement. His efforts led the French to imprison him for three years, but he negotiated Tunisia’s independence from that country in 1956. The Tunisian monarchy was abolished in 1957, and Bourguiba became president. During his 30 years in office he kept the army small and devoted much of the budget to improving education and health. Made president for life in 1975, he was removed from in 1987 because of ill health. He was succeeded by Zine el-Abidine Ben All
Bourke-White N.bork-'hwlA, Margaret (b. June 14, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Aug. 27, 1971, Stamford, Conn.) U.S. photographer. She began her professional career as an industrial and architectural pho¬ tographer in 1927. She gained a reputation for originality and in 1929 was hired by Henry R. Luce for his magazine Fortune. She covered World War II for Life magazine as the first woman photographer to serve with the U.S. armed forces. Several collections of her photographs have been published, including You Have Seen Their Faces (1937), about sharecrop¬ pers of the American South.
Bournemouth \'bom-moth \ Seaside resort and unitary authority (pop., 2001: 163,441), Dorset, southern England, on the English Channel. It dates from 1810 but did not grow rapidly until after the coming of the railway in 1870. Predominantly a resort and residential town, it is one of England’s main convention centres and is popular with retirees.
Bournonville Vbor-non-.ve-loV August (b. Aug. 21, 1805, Copen¬ hagen, Den.—d. Nov. 30, 1879, Copenhagen) Danish dancer, choreogra¬ pher, and director of the Royal Danish Ballet for almost 50 years. After studying and performing in Paris and Copenhagen, in 1830 he became director and choreographer of the Royal Danish Ballet, where he contin¬ ued to dance until 1848. He established the Danish style, characterized by bravura dancing and expressive mime. Many of his ballets were based on observations he made while on tour; Napoli (1842), for example, was inspired by a trip to Italy.
Boutros-Ghali \'bu-tros-'ga-le\, Boutros (b. Nov. 14, 1922, Cairo, Egypt) Sixth secretary-general of the United Nations (1992-96), the first Arab and first African to hold the office. A descendant of a distinguished Egyptian Coptic family, he was educated at Cairo University and the Uni¬ versity of Paris. After teaching at universities around the world, he joined Egypt’s foreign ministry in 1977. As foreign minister, he accompanied Pres. Anwar el-Sadat to Jerusalem. He became Egypt’s deputy prime minister in 1991 and was appointed UN secretary-general in 1992. Dur¬ ing his single term he oversaw peacekeeping operations in Bosnia, Soma¬
lia, and Rwanda and led the UN in its 50th-anniversary celebration. In 1996 the U.S. blocked his bid for a second term.
Bouts Vbauts\, Dirck (b. c. 1415, Haarlem, Holland—d. May 6, 1475, Louvain, Brabant) Netherlandish painter. He was active in Louvain, where he was influenced by Rogier van der Weyden. His best-known works are a triptych altarpiece (1464) for the church of St. Peter in Louvain, its pan¬ els representing the Last Supper and four Old Testament scenes, and two huge panels representing a scene of secular justice (1470-75) for the city hall, intended as examples of justice for the Louvain town council. His treatment of the human figure ranges from strong emotion expressed through symbolic gesture to great severity and restraint.
Bouvines Vbii-'venV, Battle of (July 27, 1214) Decisive victory won by the French king Philip II over an international coalition that included Emperor Otto IV, King John of England, and several powerful French vassals. Fought in the marshy plain between Bouvines and Toumai in Flanders, the battle was furiously contested but ended in a clear French victory. It confirmed Philip’s possession of French lands formerly held by the English and added to the power and prestige of the French monarchy. John’s defeat increased the opposition of his barons.
bouzouki \bu-'zii-ke\ Long-necked lute used in Greek popular music. Developed from a Turkish instrument early in the 20th century, it has a pear-shaped body and a fretted fingerboard. The modern instrument usu¬ ally has four courses of strings, which are plucked with a plectrum, typi¬ cally in a vigorous and agile style.
Boveri \bo-'va-re\, Theodor Heinrich (b. Oct. 12, 1862, Bamberg, Bavaria—d. Oct. 15, 1915, Wurzburg) German cell biologist. Working with roundworm eggs, Boveri proved that chromosomes are separate units within the nucleus of a cell. With Walter S. Sutton, he was the first to propose that genes were located on chromosomes. Boveri proved Edouard von Beneden’s theory that the ovum (egg) and sperm cell contribute equal numbers of chromosomes to the new cell created during fertilization. He later introduced the term centrosome and demonstrated that this structure is the division centre for a dividing egg cell.
bovid \'bo-vid\ Any ruminant of the family Bovidae. Bovids have hol¬ low, unbranched, permanently attached horns; they are grazing or brows¬ ing animals found in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, most often in grasslands, scrublands, or deserts. Most species live in large herds. Species range in shoulder height from a 10-in. (25-cm) antelope to the 6.5-ft (2-m) bison. Some of the 138 species (including domestic cattle, sheep, goats) are of economic value to humans. Others (including bighorn and some antelope) are hunted for food, sport, horns, or hides. See also BUFFALO, ruminant.
Bow \'bo\, Clara (b. July 29, 1905, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 27, 1965, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actress. At age 16 she won a maga¬ zine contest that gave her a bit part in a film. Hired by Paramount Pic¬ tures in 1925, she played larger roles in silent films such as Mantrap (1926) and Kid Boots (1926). After her starring role as a flapper in the popular film It (1927), Bow became known as “the It girl,” with “It” being understood as the appeal of a liberated young woman. She starred in 20 more films (1927-30), but scandals and nervous breakdowns undermined her career.
bow and arrow Weapon con¬ sisting of a strip of wood or other flexible material, bent and held in tension by a string. The arrow, a long wooden shaft with a pointed tip, is stabilized in flight by a feathered tail. The arrow is fitted to the string by a notch in the end of the shaft and is drawn back to produce tension in the bow, which propels the arrow when the string is released. Bow con¬ struction ranges from wood, bone, and metal to plastic and fiberglass; arrowheads have been made from stone, bone, and metal. The origins of the bow and arrow are prehistoric. The bow was a primary military weapon from Egyptian times through the Middle Ages in the Mediterra-