Brunn See Brno
Brunner Vbrun-orV (Heinrich) Emil (b. Dec. 23, 1889, Winterthur, Switz.—d. April 6, 1966, Zurich) Swiss Reformed theologian. After serv¬ ing as a pastor at Obstalden (1916-24), he taught for many years at the University of Zurich (1924-53); he lectured widely during this time and was a delegate to the founding session of the World Council of Churches in 1948. His theology was influenced by Martin Buber’s view of the rela¬ tionship between God and man. Like Karl Barth, he rejected 19th-century liberal theology in favour of reaffirming the central tenets of the Refor¬ mation, but his assertion that God was revealed in creation led to a dis¬ pute with Barth. His works include The Theology of Crisis (1929), Man in Revolt (1937), and Justice and the Social Order (1945).
Bruno of Querfurt \'kfer- I furt\ / Saint or Saint Boniface of Querfurt (b. c. 974, Querfurt, Saxony—d. March 14, 1009, near Braun- sberg, Prussia; feast day June 19) Missionary and martyr. A member of a noble family, he was attached to the clerical household of the emperor Otto III. After the martyrdom of St. Adalbert (997), Bruno entered a mon¬ astery, taking the name Boniface, and continued Adalbert’s work in Chris¬ tianizing the pagan Prussians. The members of a mission he sent to Poland, including Saints Benedict and John, were killed en route; Bruno wrote biographies of both saints, as well as an acclaimed biography of Adalbert. As archbishop, Bruno visited the rulers of Germany, Hungary, and Ukraine, seeking aid. He temporarily converted the pagan Pechenegs. He was killed on his way to his Prussian mission.
Bruno, Giordano orig. Filippo Bruno (b. 1548, Nola, near Naples—d. Feb. 17, 1600, Rome) Italian philosopher, astronomer, math¬ ematician, and occultist. He entered a Dominican convent in 1565 and was ordained a priest in 1572. He abandoned the order in 1576 after being accused of heresy. He moved to Geneva in 1578 and thereafter traveled Europe as a lecturer and teacher. Rejecting the traditional geocentric astronomy for a theory even more radical than that of Copernicus, he hypothesized an infinite universe and multiple worlds. His cosmological theories, which anticipated fundamental aspects of the modern concep¬ tion of the universe, led to his excommunication by the Roman Catholic, Calvinist, and Lutheran churches. In 1592 he was arrested and tried by the Venetian Inquisition, which extradited him to the Roman Inquisition in the following year. After a seven-year trial, he was burned at the stake. His ethical ideas have appealed to modem humanists, and his ideal of religious and philosophical tolerance has influenced liberal thinkers. His most important works are On the Infinite Universe and Worlds (1584) and The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast (1584).
Brusa See Bursa
Brusilov \bru-'sye-lof\, Aleksey (Alekseyevich) (b. Aug. 31, 1853, Tiflis, Russia—d. March 17, 1926, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Rus¬ sian general. He distinguished himself in the Russo-Turkish War (1877— 78) and was promoted to general in 1906. In World War I he led the Russian campaign in Galicia (1914) and was most famous as commander of the “Brusilov breakthrough” on the Eastern Front against Austria- Hungary (1916), inflicting losses that forced Germany to divert troops from the Battle of Verdun against France on the Western Front. He later served in the Bolshevik government as a military consultant (1920-24).
Brussels French Bruxelles \bruj-'sel, briek-'selV Flemish Brussel VbriE-solX City (pop., 2000 est.: 133,900), capital of Belgium. Part of the Brussels Capital Region (pop., 2000 est.: 959,300), one of the three regions into which Belgium is divided, it lies on the Senne River, a tribu¬ tary of the Schelde. The village began on an island in the Senne and ulti¬ mately became a holding of the dukes of Brabant. In 1530 it became the capital of the Netherlands, which was then under Habsburg control. Part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1815, it became a centre of Bel-
Interior of Santo Spirito, Florence, designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, begun 1436
AUNARI-ART RESOURCE/EB INC.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
286 I Brussels sprout ► bryozoan
gian rebellion in 1830 and then the capital of Belgium. An important industrial and commercial city, it is the headquarters of both NATO and the European Union.
Brussels sprout Small CABBAGE-related plant (Brassica oleracea, Gem- mifera group). A member of the mustard family, Brussels sprouts are widely grown in Europe and the U.S. In early stages of growth, the plant closely resembles the common cabbage, but the main stem grows to a height of 2-3 ft (60-90 cm) and the axillary buds along the stem develop into small heads (sprouts) similar to heads of cabbage but measuring only 1-1.6 in. (25-40 mm) in diameter. The plant requires a mild, cool climate and is harmed by hot weather. Highly nutritious, Brussels sprouts are a particu¬ larly good source of vitamins A and C.
Brussels Treaty (1948) Agreement signed by Britain, France, Bel¬ gium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, creating a collective-defense alliance. It led to the formation of NATO and the Western European Union. A goal of the treaty was to show that Western European states could cooperate, thus encouraging the U.S. to play a role in the security of Western Europe.
Brutalism or New Brutalism Term coined (1953) to describe Le Corbusier’s use of monumental, sculptural shapes and raw, unfinished molded concrete, an approach that represented a departure from Interna¬ tional Style. New Brutalist architects displayed a willful avoidance of pol¬ ish and elegance in their buildings, exposing such structural elements as steel beams and precast concrete slabs to convey a stark, austere rectilin- earity. See also Louis Kahn, James Stirling.
Brutus, Marcus Junius or Quintus Caepio Brutus (b. 85—d.
42 bc, near Philippi, Macedonia)
Roman politician, leader of the con¬ spirators who assassinated Julius Caesar in 44 bc. He joined Pompey’s army against Caesar in the civil war (49) but was pardoned by Caesar after Pompey’s death. He joined the plot to murder Caesar out of his desire to restore the Roman republic.
After Caesar’s death, he and Gaius Cassius formed an army in Mace¬ donia; Brutus defeated the Caesari¬ ans under Octavian (Augustus) in the first engagement of the Battle of Phil¬ ippi, but Mark Antony and Octavian crushed his army in a second encounter. Realizing the republican cause was lost, Brutus committed suicide.
Bruyere, Jean de La See Jean de La Bruyere
Bryan, William Jennings (b.
March 19, 1860, Salem, Ill.,
U.S.—d. July 26, 1925, Dayton, Tenn.) U.S. politician and orator. He practiced law at Jacksonville, Ill. (1883-87), before moving to Lin¬ coln, Neb., where he was elected to the U.S. Congress in 1890. In the U.S. House of Representatives (1891-95), he became the national leader of the Free Silver Movement; he advocated its aims in his “Cross of Gold” speech, which won him the Democratic Party nomination for president in 1896. He was the party’s nominee again in 1900 and 1908. In 1901 he founded a newspaper, The Commoner, and thereafter lectured widely to admiring audiences; he was called “the Great Commoner.” He helped secure the presidential nomination for Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and served as his secretary of state (1913-15), contributing to
Marcus Brutus, marble bust; in the Capitoline Museum, Rome