caliper Instrument that consists of two adjustable legs or jaws for mea¬ suring the dimensions of material parts. Spring calipers have an adjusting screw and nut; firm-joint calipers use friction at the joint to hold the legs unmoving. Outside calipers measure thicknesses and outside diameters of objects; inside calipers measure hole diameters and distances between sur¬ faces. Hermaphrodite calipers, which have one leg bent inward and one straight leg ending in a sharp point, are used for scribing lines at a speci¬ fied distance from a flat or curved surface. See also micrometer.
caliph Vka-taf, 'ka-bf\ Arabic khalTfah ("deputy" or "succes¬ sor") Title given to those who succeeded the Prophet Muhammad as real or nominal ruler of the Muslim world, ostensibly with all his powers except that of prophecy. Controversy over the selection of the fourth caliph, c Au, eventually split Islam into the Sunnite and ShYite branches. 'All’s rival, Mu'awiyah I, established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs, which produced 14 caliphs (661-750). The 'Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), the most widely observed caliphate, associated with 38 caliphs, moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 effectively ended the dynasty. Other Muslim leaders created caliphates with limited success. The Fattmid dynasty proclaimed a new caliphate in 920; c Abd al-Rahman III announced one in opposition to both the 'Abbasids and the Fatimids in 928. A scion of the 'Abbasid line was set up by the MamlGk dynasty as a sort of puppet caliph after 1258. This caliphate exer¬ cised no power whatsoever, and, from 1517 until it was abolished by the Republic of Turkey in 1924, it resided in Istanbul under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Modern Muslim militants consider the abolition of the caliphate a catastrophic event, and its return has been a central pillar of their political program.
calisthenics Systematic rhythmic bodily exercises (e.g., jumping jacks, push-ups), usually performed without apparatus. Calisthenics promote strength, endurance, flexibility, and general well-being by placing regu¬ lar demands on the cardiovascular system. The exercises, initially con¬
ceived as primarily for women, arose in the 19th century in Germany and Sweden. Catharine Esther Beecher in the U.S. advocated women’s calis¬ thenics. As their health benefits became known, they became an activity for both sexes.
Calixtus \k3-'lik-st3s\ II orig. Guido of Burgundy (d. Dec. 13/14, 1124, Rome) Pope (1119-24). As archbishop of Vienne in Lower Bur¬ gundy, he became known as an advocate of reform and an opponent of Holy Roman emperor Henry V. Elected pope in 1119, he condemned lay investiture and excommunicated Henry. They were later reconciled, and the Concordat of Worms (1122) ended the Investiture Controversy. Calix¬ tus called the first Lateran Council (1123), which secured peace between church and empire for the next 35 years. His bull Etsi Judaeis (1120) pro¬ tected Roman Jews.
calla Either of two distinct kinds of plants of the arum family. Calla palustris is known as the arum lily, water arum, or wild calla. The com¬ mon name calla is also generally given to several species of Zantedes- chia, often called calla lilies. The handsome C. palustris occurs widely in wet places in cool, northern tem¬ perate and subarctic regions. It has heart-shaped leaves, showy white floral leaves, and clusters of brilliant red berries. Its juice is violently poi¬ sonous. The most important of the calla lilies, all native to South Africa, is the common florist’s calla (Z. aethiopica ), a stout herb with a fra¬ grant white spathe and arrow-shaped leaves; a popular indoor plant, it is grown commercially for cut flowers.
Callaghan Vka-lo-.ha^ (of Cardiff), (Leonard) James Cal¬ laghan, Baron (b. March 27, 1912, Portsmouth, Hampshire, Eng.—d. March 26, 2005, Ringmer, East Sussex) British politician. A trade union official, he entered the House of Commons as a Labour Party member in 1945. He served in Labour governments as chancellor of the Exchequer (1964-67), home secretary (1967-70), and foreign secretary (1974-76) before becoming prime minister (1976-79). A moderate within his party, he tried to stem the vociferous demands of the trade unions. After a series of paralyzing labour strikes in 1978-79 (the “Winter of Discontent”), his government was brought down by a parliamentary vote of no confidence. He was created a life peer in the House of Lords in 1987.
Callaghan \'ka-b-,han\, Morley (Edward) (b. Sept. 22, 1903, Tor¬ onto, Ont., Can.—d. Aug. 25, 1990, Toronto) Canadian novelist and short- story writer. Callaghan received a law degree in 1928 but never practiced. He won acclaim for the short-story collection A Native Argosy (1929). His first novel, Strange Fugitive (1928), describes the destruction of a social misfit, a type that recurs in his fiction. Subsequent novels, includ¬ ing They Shall Inherit the Earth (1935) and The Loved and the Lost (1951, Governor General’s Award), emphasize Christian love as an answer to social injustice. That Summer in Paris (1963) describes Callaghan’s friendship with F. Scon Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway. Later works include A Fine and Private Place (1975) and A Time for Judas (1983).
Callahan, Harry (Morey) (b. Oct. 22,1912, Detroit, Mich., U.S.—d. March 15, 1999, Atlanta, Ga.) U.S. photographer. He had no formal train¬ ing in photography and first developed an interest in it in 1938. In 1941 Ansel Adams’s photographs inspired him to develop his own style. His subjects included landscapes, cityscapes, and unconventional portraits of his wife and daughter. He was best known as a teacher; he was head of the photography department at the Chicago Institute of Design (1949-61) and developed the photography department at the Rhode Island School of Design (1961-76). In 1980 two collections of his works were published, Water’s Edge and Harry Callahan: Color, 1945-1980.
Callao \ka-'ya-o\ City (pop., 1996 est.: 407,904), chief seaport, Peru. It was founded in 1537 by Francisco Pizarro on Callao Bay west of Lima. As the leading shipping point for gold and silver taken by Spanish conquis- tadores from the Incas, it was frequently assaulted by pirates and by Spain’s European rivals. It was destroyed by a tidal wave in 1746, then rebuilt near its original site. It withstood several sieges by Spanish forces during the wars for independence. The revolutionary leader Simon Bou-
lalifornia poppy (Eschscholzia califor-
lica).
3RANT HEILMAN PHOTOGRAPHY
Arum lily (Calla palustris)
INGMAR HOIMASEN
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Callas ► Calukya i 315
var landed here in 1823, and three years later it was the scene of the final Spanish surrender to rebel forces. It suffered heavy earthquake damage in 1940 but has since expanded and modernized.
Callas \'ka-bs\, Maria orig. Cecilia Sophia Anna Maria Kalogeropoulos (b. Dec. 2, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 16, 1977, Paris, France) U.S. soprano of Greek descent. In 1937 she moved to Greece with her mother and made her debut there in 1939. She gained an international reputation for her performance in La Gioconda at the 1947 Verona Festival. She continued to sing heavy dramatic roles, including Giacomo Puccini’s Turandot and Richard Wagner’s Kundry, until the conductor Tullio Serafin (1878-1968) convinced her to shift to the bel canto repertoire, for which she became famous. Her signature role was Vincenzo Bellini’s Norma. Though her voice was imperfect, her extraordi¬ nary range, dramatic stage presence, and mastery of difficult roles made her the most famous opera star of her day. Her fiery temperament and her flamboyant and demanding personality made her an international celeb¬ rity; she was the consummate diva.
calligraphy \ko-'lig-r3-fe\ Art of beautiful, stylized, or elegant hand¬ writing or lettering with pen or brush and ink. It involves the correct for¬ mation of characters, the ordering of the various parts, and the harmony of proportions. In the Islamic and Chinese cultures, calligraphy is as highly revered as painting. In Europe in the 14th-16th century, two scripts developed that influenced all subsequent handwriting and printing: the roman and italic styles. With the invention of modern printing (1450), calligraphy became increasingly bold and ornamental.