Calvin, John French Jean Cauvin \ko-'va n \ (b. July 10, 1509, Noyon, Picardy, France—d. May 27, 1564, Geneva, Switz.) French Prot¬ estant theologian and major figure of the Reformation. He studied religion at the University of Paris and law in Orleans and Bourges. When he returned to Paris in 1531 he studied the Bible and became part of a move¬ ment that emphasized salvation by grace rather than by works. Govern¬ ment intolerance prompted him to move to Basel, Switz., where he wrote the first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536). Gaining a reputation among Protestant leaders, he went to Geneva to help establish Protestantism in that city. He was expelled by city fathers in 1538 but returned in 1541, when the town council instituted the church order out¬ lined in his Ecclesiastical Ordinances, including enforcement of sexual morality and abolition of Catholic “superstition.” He approved the arrest and conviction for heresy of Michael Servetus. By 1555 Calvin had suc¬ ceeded in establishing a theocracy in Geneva, where he served as pastor and head of the Genevan Academy and wrote the sermons, biblical com¬ mentaries, and letters that form the basis of Calvinism.
Calvin, Melvin (b. April 8, 1911, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.—d. Jan. 8, 1997, Berkeley, Calif.) U.S. biochemist. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. He developed a system of using the radioactive isotope carbon-14 as a tracer element in his studies of the green alga chlo- rella. By halting the plant’s metabolism at various stages and measuring tiny amounts of radioactive compounds present, Calvin was able to iden¬ tify most of the reactions involved in the intermediate steps of photosyn¬ thesis, for which he was awarded a 1961 Nobel Prize. His research also included work in radiation chemistry and the processes leading to the ori¬ gin of life.
Calvinism In Protestantism, the theology developed and advanced by John Calvin. It was further developed by his followers and became the foundation of the Reformed church and Presbyterianism. As shaped by Calvin’s successor at Geneva, Theodore Beza (1519-1605), Calvinism emphasizes the doctrine of predestination, holding that God extends grace and grants salvation only to the chosen, or elect. It stresses the literal truth of the Bible, and it views the church as a Christian community in which Christ is head and all members are equal under him. It therefore rejects the episcopal form of church government in favor of an organization in which church officers are elected. Calvinism was the basis of theocracies in Geneva and Puritan New England (see Puritanism), and it strongly influ¬ enced the Presbyterian church in Scotland.
Calvino \kal-'ve-no\, Italo (b. Oct. 15, 1923, Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba—d. Sept. 19, 1985, Siena, Italy) Cuban-born Italian writer. After early works inspired by his involvement with the Italian Resistance in World War II, he turned decisively to fantasy and allegory in the 1950s. Cosmicomics (1965) is a collection of whimsical narratives about the cre¬ ation and evolution of the universe. The novels Invisible Cities (1972), The Castle of Crossed Destinies (1973), and If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler (1979) use playfully innovative structures and shifting view¬
points. The Uses of Literature (1980) is a collection of essays he wrote for a left-wing journal he edited from 1959 to 1966.
calypso \k3-'lip-so\ Musical style best known as a type of folk song. Calypso originated in Trinidad but is common throughout the Caribbean. The calypso tradition dates to the early 19th century. The subject of a calypso text, usually witty and satiric, is an event of political or social import. The lyric often incorporates Spanish, Creole, and African phrases, employing newly invented expressions such as bobol (graft) and pakoti (unfaithfulness). The exaggeration of local speech patterns is matched by an offbeat rhythm. Favourite accompanying instruments are the shak-shak (maraca), cuatro (a string instrument), and tamboo-bamboo (bamboo poles of various lengths struck on the ground). Shaped and tuned oil drums, played together in orchestras called steel bands, have also been popular.
cam Machine component that either rotates or reciprocates (moves back and forth) to create a prescribed motion in a contacting element (the fol¬ lower). Since the shape of the contacting surface of the cam is determined by the prescribed motion and the profile of the follower, cams take vari¬ ous forms. Cam-follower mechanisms are particularly useful when a simple motion of one part of a machine is to be converted to a more com¬ plicated prescribed motion of another part, one that must be accurately timed with respect to the simple motion and may include periods of rest (dwells). Cams are essential elements in automatic machine tools, printing machines, sewing machines, and textile machinery.
Cam Ranh Vkam-'ranV Bay Vietnamese Vinh Cam Ranh Inlet of the South China Sea, south-central Vietnam. Located between Phan Rang and Nha Trang, it was a French colonial naval base. It was used by the Japanese in World War II. From 1965 it was a major U.S. base in the Vietnam War. It later was a major Soviet naval base, and Russia main¬ tained a presence there after the dissolution of the U.S.S.R.
Camaguey \,ka-ma-'gwa\ City (pop., 1994 est.: 293,961), capital of Camagiiey province, Cuba. Founded at the site of the present-day port of Nuevitas, it was moved inland in 1528. Because of the province’s great production of livestock and agricultural products, it is now Cuba’s larg¬ est interior city and an important communications, trading, and industrial centre.
Camargo \ka-mar-'go\, Marie (-Anne de Cupis de) (b. April 15, 1710, Brussels, Spanish Netherlands—d. April 20, 1770, Paris, Fr.) French ballerina. She made her Paris Opera debut in 1726 and went on to dance in 78 ballets and operas before her retirement in 1751. Admired for her speed and agility, she executed jumping steps previously per¬ formed only by male dancers, shortening her skirts and removing the heels from her slippers to enable her do so. Her name was adopted in 1930 by a British ballet group, the Camargo Society.
Camargue \ka-'marg\ Marshy island in the delta of the Rhone River, southern France. Occupying an area of 300 sq mi (780 sq km), it is sparsely populated). The region was once entirely wild, with free-roaming herds of cattle and wild horses; such herds can still be found in the regional park. Vineyards, forage crops, and grains were planted begin¬ ning in the late 19th century; rice growing developed after 1945. A nature reserve at the Vaccares Lagoon protects waterbirds such as flamingos and egrets.
Cambay, Gulf of See Gulf of Khambhat Cambio, Arnolfo di See Arnolfo di Cambio
cambium In plants, a layer of actively dividing cells between xylem (fluid-conducting) and phloem (food-conducting) tissues that is responsible for the secondary growth of stems and roots, resulting in an increase in thickness. A cambium may also form within callus tissues. See also bark, WOOD.
Cambodia officially Kingdom of Cambodia Country, Southeast Asia. Area: 69,898 sq mi (181,035 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 13,327,000. Capitaclass="underline" Phnom Penh. The vast majority of the population belongs to the Khmer ethnic group. Language: Khmer (official). Reli¬ gions: Buddhism (official); also traditional beliefs. Currency: riel. The landscape is dominated by large central plains; the Dangrek Mountains rise along the northern border. Cambodia lies largely in the basin of the Mekong River; the large lake Tonle Sap is in its western part. Much of the country is tropical forest. It is one of the world’s poorest countries. Agri¬ culture employs about three-fourths of the workforce. Cambodia is a con¬ stitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the