State Capitol, Carson City, Nev.
DONALD DONDERO
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Cartel des Gauches ► Carthusian I 343
their separate identities and financial independence while engaging in cooperative policies. Cartels can either be domestic (e.g., the historical example of the German IG Farben) or international (e.g., OPEC). Because cartels restrict competition and result in higher prices for consumers, they are outlawed in some countries. The only industry operating in the U.S. with a blanket exemption from the antitrust laws is major league baseball, but several U.S. firms have been given permission to participate in inter¬ national cartels.
Cartel des Gauches \kar-'tel-da-'gosh\ (French: “Coalition of the Left”) In the French Third Republic, a coalition of left-wing parties (the Socialists and the Radicals) in the Chamber of Deputies. They formed the Cartel in opposition to the right-wing Bloc National, which they defeated in the elections of 1924. Led by Edouard Herriot and later Aristide Briand, the Cartel was defeated in 1926 by a financial crisis brought about by continuing inflation.
Carter, Benny orig. Bennett Lester Carter (b. Aug. 8, 1907, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 12, 2003, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. jazz musi¬ cian. Known as one of the primary stylists of the alto saxophone, he was also an accomplished arranger, composer, clarinetist, trumpeter, and bandleader. He played in the big bands of Chick Webb and Fletcher Hend¬ erson before assuming leadership of McKinney’s Cotton Pickers (193 1— 32). Carter worked in Europe (1935-38) and moved to California in 1945 to write music for film and television. His best-known composition is “When Lights Are Low.” He was awarded the National Medal of Arts in
Carter, Elliott (Cook, Jr.) (b. Dec. 11, 1908, New York, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. composer. Born to a wealthy family, he studied English and music at Harvard University and later studied in Paris with Nadia Boulanger. He taught at many institutions, after 1972 primarily at the Juilliard School. He absorbed a range of influences, including Igor Stravinsky and Charles Ives. His style evolved into a densely contrapuntal, dissonant, and rhythmically complex texture in which the various instrumental parts frequently sug¬ gest conversation and combat. His principal works include a sonata for flute, oboe, cello, and harpsichord (1952), Variations for Orchestra (1955), a double concerto for piano and harpsichord (1961), a piano con¬ certo (1965), Concerto for Orchestra (1969), A Symphony of Three Orchestras (1977), Night Fantasies for piano (1980), and four string quar¬ tets (1951, 1959, 1971, 1986), two of which received the Pulitzer Prize. He is often called the greatest American composer of the late 20th century.
Carter, Jimmy orig. James Earl Carter (b. Oct. 1, 1924, Plains, Ga., U.S.) 39th president of the U.S.
(1977-81). He graduated from Annapolis and served in the U.S.
Navy until 1953, when he left to manage the family peanut business.
He served in the state senate from 1962 to 1966. He ran unsuccessfully for governor in 1966; depressed by this experience, he found solace in evangelical Christianity, becoming a born-again Baptist. In 1970 he ran again and won. As governor (1971—
75), he opened Georgia’s govern¬ ment offices to African Americans and women and introduced stricter budgeting procedures for state agencies. In 1976, though lacking a national political base or major backing, he won the Democratic nomi¬ nation and the presidency, defeating the Republican incumbent, Gerald Ford. As president, Carter helped negotiate a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, signed a treaty with Panama to make the Panama Canal a neu¬ tral zone after 1999, and established full diplomatic relations with China. In 1979-80 the Iran hostage crisis became a major political liability. He responded forcefully to the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, embargoing the shipment of U.S. grain to the Soviet Union and pressing for a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. The poor state of the economy, which was plagued by high inflation and high unemployment, contributed to Carter’s electoral defeat by Ronald Reagan in 1980. He subsequently became involved in numerous interna¬ tional diplomatic negotiations and helped to oversee elections in coun¬ tries with insecure democratic traditions; he also became the first sitting or former American president to visit Fidel Castro’s Cuba. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2002.
Carter Family U.S. singing group. It consisted of Alvin Pleasant Carter (1891-1960), his wife Sara (1898-1979), and his sister-in-law Maybelle (1909-78). Natives of Virginia, they began their recording career in 1927. Over 16 years, with various combinations of Carter daughters, they recorded more than 300 songs from the 19th and early 20th centuries, including “Wabash Cannonball,” “I’m Thinking Tonight of My Blue Eyes,” “Wildwood Flower,” and “Keep on the Sunny Side.” They helped popularize Appalachian folk songs. After the original group broke up in 1943, its members continued to perform. “Mother” Maybelle Carter formed a successful act with her daughters and later performed with her son-in-law Johnny Cash. In the 1950s the Carter Family re-formed and appeared intermittently, with a changing lineup. The original Carter Fam¬ ily was the first group admitted (1970) to the Country Music Hall of Fame.
Carteret \'kart-3-,ret. Sir George (b. c. 1610, probably Jersey, Chan¬ nel Islands, Eng.—d. January 1680, New Jersey) British politician and colonial proprietor. His naval exploits and service as lieutenant governor of the Channel Island of Jersey won him a knighthood (1644) and bar¬ onetcy (1645). After the 1660 Restoration he became a powerful admin¬ istrator and legislator. In 1663 he became one of eight original proprietors granted the area of Carolina; in 1664 he received half of New Jersey, named for his birthplace. The other owner sold out to the Quakers in 1674. With the Quakers, Carteret agreed to divide the colony. After Carteret’s death, his heirs sold the remaining portion to the Quakers.
Cartesian \,kar-'te-zh3n\ circle Allegedly circular reasoning used by Rene Descartes to show that whatever he perceives “clearly and distinctly” is true. Descartes argues that clear and distinct perception is a guarantor of truth because God, who is not a deceiver, would not allow Descartes to be mistaken about that which he clearly and distinctly perceives. The argument relies on Descartes’s earlier proof of the existence of God. But Descartes cannot know that this proof does not contain an error unless he assumes that his clear and distinct perception of the steps of his reason¬ ing guarantees that the proof is correct. Thus the criterion of clear and distinct perception depends on the assumption that God exists, which in turn depends on the criterion of clear and distinct perception. See also COGITO, ERGO SUM.
Cartesianism Philosophical tradition derived from the philosophy of Rene Descartes. A form of rationalism, Cartesianism upholds a metaphysi¬ cal dualism of two finite substances, mind and matter. The essence of mind is thinking; the essence of matter is extension in three dimensions. God is a third, infinite substance, whose essence is necessary existence. God unites minds with bodies to create a fourth, compound substance, man. Mind-body dualism generates problems concerning the possibility of causal interaction between mind and body and knowledge of the external world (see mind-body problem ), and various lines of Cartesianism devel¬ oped from different proposed solutions to these problems. A historically important Cartesian theory holds that animals are essentially machines, lacking even the ability to feel pain. See also Arnold Geulincx; Nicolas de Malebranche; occasionalism.