Carthage Ancient city and state, northern Africa. Located near mod¬ ern Tunis, Tun., it was built around a citadel called the Byrsa. Founded by colonists from Tyre, probably in the 8th century bc, its people undertook conquests in western Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia in the 6th century bc. Under the descendants of Hamilcar, it came to dominate the western Mediterranean Sea. In the 3rd century bc it fought the first of the three Punic Wars with Rome. Destroyed by a Roman army led by Scipio Afri- canus the Younger (146 bc), it became the site of a colony founded by Julius Caesar in 44 bc; in 29 bc Augustus made it the administrative cen¬ tre of the province of Africa. Among the Christian bishops who served there were Tertuluan and St. Cyprian. Captured by the Vandals in 439 and the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century, it was taken by the Arabs in the 7th century and was eclipsed by their emphasis on Tunis.
Carthaginian Wars See Punic Wars
Carthusian \kar-'thii-zh3n\ Member of a Roman Catholic monastic order founded by St. Bruno of Cologne (c. 1030-1101) in 1084 in the Chartreuse valley of southeastern France. Members of the Order of Carthusians pray, study, eat, and sleep alone but gather in church for morning mass, vespers, and the night office. They dine together on Sun¬ days and major holidays and walk together once a week. They wear hair shirts, abstain from eating meat, and consume only bread and water on Fridays and fast days. At the motherhouse, or Grande Chartreuse (today
Jimmy Carter.
COURTESY JIMMY CARTER LIBRARY
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344 I Cartier ► Carver
in Voiron, Isere), the monks distill the liqueur that bears the house’s name. Carthusian nuns are also strictly cloistered and contemplative.
Cartier \kar-'tya\, Jacques (b. 1491, Saint-Malo, Brittany, France—d. Sept. 1, 1557, near Saint-Malo) French sailor and explorer. He was com¬ missioned by Francis I to explore North America in the hope of discov¬ ering gold, spices, and a passage to Asia. Cartier’s explorations of the North American coast and the St. Lawrence River (1534, 1535, 1541—42) did not produce the desired results, but they did lay the basis for later French claims to Canada.
Cartier \kar-'tya\, Sir George Etienne, Baronet (b. Sept. 6, 1814, St. Antoine, Lower Canada—d. May 20, 1873, London, Eng.) Canadian prime minister jointly with John Macdonald (1858-62). He was elected as a Liberal to the Canadian legislative assembly (1848) and was later appointed provincial secretary (1855) and attorney general for Canada East (1857). In 1858 Cartier represented Canada East in the alliance with Macdonald and promoted the improvement of Anglo-French relations in Canada. He was a proponent of the Grand Trunk Railway. In 1867, despite great opposition, he carried his native province into confederation. He then served as minister of militia and defense in Macdonald’s first Con¬ federation cabinet (1867-72).
Cartier-Bresson \kar-tya-br3-'so n \, Henri (b. Aug. 22, 1908, Chan- teloup, Fr.—d. Aug. 3, 2004, Cereste) French photographer. He studied art in Paris and literature and painting at the University of Cambridge. His interest in photography developed c. 1930 when he encountered the works of Eugene Atget and Man Ray. He is known for spontaneous, sequential images in still photography, a technique inspired by his enthu¬ siasm for filmmaking. He helped establish photojournalism as an art form and with Robert Capa, David Seymour, and others founded the coopera¬ tive Magnum Photos (1947). The best known of his many collections is The Decisive Moment (1952).
cartilage \'kar-t 3 l-ij\ Connective tissue in parts of the human skeleton. A network of collagen fibres in a firm, gelatinous base, it contains no blood vessels or nerves. Different types of cartilage are found at the ends of some bones and in nasal and respiratory structures; in the spinal disks; and in the ear and epiglottis (back of the throat). Most of the skeleton of an embryo is made of cartilage, which is later replaced by bone.
Cartland, Dame (Mary) Barbara (Hamilton) (b. July 9, 1901, Edgbaston, Birmingham, Eng.—d. May 21, 2000, Hatfield, Hertfordshire) English author. Her first novel, Jigsaw (1925), was a popular success. She wrote two more novels and a play during the 1920s; thereafter her output grew steadily, and by the 1970s she was averaging 23 books a year, all of which she dictated. Her approximately 600 books, mostly formulaic romance novels, have sold more than 600 million copies. Cartland’s non¬ fiction includes autobiographies and books on health food, vitamins, and beauty. She was the step-grandmother of Diana, Princess of Wales.
cartography \kar-'ta-gro-fe\ or mapmaking Art and science of representing a geographic area graphically, usually by means of a map or chart. Political, cultural, or other nongeographic features may be superim¬ posed. Ptolemy’s eight-volume Geography showed a flat, disc-shaped pro¬ jection of part of the Earth. Medieval European maps followed Ptolemy’s guide but placed east at the top of the map. In the 14th century more- accurate maps were developed for use in navigation. The first surviving globe dates from 1492. Discovery of the New World led to new techniques in cartography, notably projection of a curved surface onto a flat surface. In particular, Gerardus Mercator projected landmasses onto a cylinder wrapped around the Earth’s Equator. Such cylindrical projections main¬ tain proper directions or bearings, though they cause distortions in dis¬ tances at high latitudes. Contour maps show relief by connecting points of equal elevation with lines, mean sea level being the reference point. Mod¬ ern cartography uses aerial photography and satellite radar for a degree of accuracy previously unattainable. Satellites have also made possible the mapping of features of the Moon and of several planets and their moons. See also geographic information system; global positioning system.
cartoon Originally, a full-size drawing used for transferring a design to a painting, tapestry, or other large work. Cartoons were used from the 15th century by fresco painters and stained-glass artists. In the 19th cen¬ tury the term acquired its popular meaning of a humorous drawing or parody. Cartoons in that sense are used today to convey political com¬ mentary, editorial opinion, and social comedy in newspapers and maga¬ zines. The greatest early figure is William Hogarth, in 18th-century Britain.
In 19th-century France, Honore Daumier introduced accompanying text that conveyed his characters’ unspoken thoughts. Britain’s Punch became the foremost 19th-century venue for cartoons; in the 20th century The New Yorker set the American standard. A Pulitzer Prize for editorial cartoon¬ ing was established in 1922. See also caricature; comic strip.
Cartwright, Alexander (Joy) (b. April 17, 1820, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 12, 1892, Honolulu, Hawaii) U.S. surveyor and baseball enthusiast. Cartwright was a founder of the amateur New York Knicker¬ bocker Base Ball Club and chaired the commission that established base¬ ball’s official rules. These included the requirement of tagging out a base runner rather than hitting him with a thrown ball and fixing the distance between bases at 90 ft (27.4 m). The first game under the newly codified rules was apparently played in Hoboken, N.J., in 1846. See also Abner Doubleday.
Cartwright, Edmund (b. April 24, 1743, Marnham, Nottinghamshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 30, 1823, Hastings, Sussex) British inventor. On visiting Richard Arkwright’s cotton-spinning mills, he was inspired to construct a power-driven machine for weaving. He invented a power loom and set up a weaving and spinning factory in Yorkshire. In 1789 he patented a wool- combing machine. In 1809 the House of Commons voted to reward him for the benefits his loom had conferred on the nation. His other inventions included a cordelier (machine for making rope) and a steam engine that used alcohol instead of water.
Caruso \k3-'ru-so\, Enrico orig. Errico Caruso (b. Feb. 27, 1873, Naples, Italy—d. Aug. 2, 1921, Naples) Italian tenor. Apprenticed to a mechanical engineer at age 10, at 18 he began to sing in public in his free time. He attracted the notice of a teacher and made his professional debut in 1894. He sang his best-known role, Canio in Ruggero Leoncavallo’s Pagliacci, for the first time in 1896. He recovered from a disastrous La Scala debut in 1900 and within two years had gained the high notes that made him an international star and a legend. He sang at the Metropolitan Opera (1903-20) in almost 60 roles, becoming the most famous male opera star of his time. His warm, appealing tenor voice of great emotive power made his recordings (which include some of the first vocal record¬ ings ever made) best-sellers for decades after his death.