Chandler, Raymond (Thornton) (b. July 23, 1888, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. March 26, 1959, La Jolla, Calif.) U.S. writer of detective fic¬ tion. Chandler worked as an oil-company executive in California before turning to writing during the Great Depression. Early short stories were followed by screenplays, including Double Indemnity (1944), The Blue Dahlia (1946), and Strangers on a Train (1951). His character Philip Marlowe, a hard-boiled private detective working in the Los Angeles underworld, appears in all seven of his novels, including The Big Sleep (1939; film, 1946 and 1978), Farewell, My Lovely (1940; film Murder, My Sweet, 1944, and Farewell, My Lovely, 1975), and The Long Good- Bye (1953; film, 1973). Chandler and Dashiell Hammett are regarded as the classic authors of the hard-boiled genre.
Chandra Gupta II or Candra Gupta II or Vikramaditya (fl. 4th-5th centuries ad, India) Powerful emperor (r. c. 380-c. 415) of the Gupta dynasty of northern India. A grandson of Chandra Gupta I (r. 320-c. 335), who founded the dynasty, he is thought to have achieved power by assassinating a weak elder brother. He inherited a large empire and extended control over neighbouring territories through battle and marriage alliances. Under him, India enjoyed peace and relative prosperity. His system of government and his charity were admired by the Chinese pil¬ grim Faxian. He was a patron of the poet Kalidasa. Though a devout Hindu, he tolerated the Buddhist and Jain religions.
Chandragupta Maurya or Candra Gupta \ l kon-dr3- l gup-td\ Maurya (fl. 4th-3rd centuries bc, India) Founder of the Maurya dynasty and the first emperor (r. c. 321-c. 297 bc) to unify most of India under one administration (see Mauryan empire). Born to a destitute migrant Mau- ryan family, he was sold into slavery and eventually purchased by a Brah¬ man politician, who gave him an education in military tactics and the arts. Chandragupta gathered mercenary soldiers, secured public support, over¬ threw the Nanda dynasty, and established his own in modern-day Bihar. On the death of Alexander the Great (323 bc), he won control of the Pun¬ jab (c. 322). He expanded his empire east to the borders of Persia, south to India’s tip, and north to the Himalayas and the Kabul River valley. His administration was patterned on that of the Persian Achaemenian dynasty. He died fasting in sympathy for his people during a time of famine.
Chandrasekhar X.chon-dro-'sha-karX, Subrahmanyan (b. Oct. 19, 1910, Lahore, India—-d. Aug. 21, 1995, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) Indian-born U.S. astrophysicist. He left the University of Cambridge to join the staff of the University of Chicago in 1938. He determined that, following its red giant phase, a star with a remaining mass greater than 1.4 times that of the Sun (the Chandrasekhar limit) collapses and becomes a neutron star during a supernova explosion. Stellar remnants more massive than about three solar masses collapse even further to become black holes. He shared a 1983 Nobel Prize with William A. Fowler.
Chanel \sha-'nel\, Gabrielle known as Coco Chanel (b. Aug. 19, 1883, Saumur, France—d. Jan. 10, 1971, Paris) French fashion designer. Little is known of her early life. In 1913 she opened a millinery shop in Deauville, and within five years her innovative use of jersey fabric and accessories was attracting wealthy patrons. Her nonconformist designs.
Death mask of gold and silver alloy with copper eyes and ears, Chimu cul¬ ture, c. 1000-c. 1465, centred at Chan Chan; in a private collection
FERDINAND ANTON
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
372 I Chaney ► chanson
stressing simplicity and comfort, revolutionized the fashion industry for the next 30 years. She popularized turtleneck sweaters, the “little black dress,” and the much-copied “Chanel suit.” Chanel industries included a Parisian fashion house, a textile business, perfume laboratories, and a workshop for costume jewelry. The financial basis of her empire was Chanel No. 5 perfume, introduced in 1922 and still popular.
Chaney, Lon in full Alonso Chaney (b. April 1, 1883, Colorado Springs, Colo., U.S.—d. Aug. 26,
1930, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. film actor. Bom to deaf-mute parents, he learned pantomime and became an actor at 17. He moved to Hollywood in 1912 and played supporting roles until The Miracle Man (1919) made him a star. Known as “the man of a thousand faces,” he was famous for his ability to transform himself through the use of makeup. He often played grotesque or dual characters in films directed by Tod Browning, including The Unholy Three (1925).
His other silent films include The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923),
The Phantom of the Opera (1925), and London After Midnight (1927).
His son Lon Chaney, Jr. (1905-73), appeared in numerous horror films in such repeated roles as the Wolf Man and the Mummy and, notably, in Of Mice and Men (1939).
Chang Chih-tung See Zhang Zhidong
Chang Chii-cheng See Zhang Juzheng Chang Jiang See Yangtze River Chang Tao-Ling See Zhang Daoling Chang Tsai See Zhang Zai Chang Tso-lin See Zhang Zuolin
Chang'an Vchaq-'anX or Ch'ang-an Ancient capital of China during the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties, near present-day Xi'an. From the mid- 4th century it was a centre of Buddhist studies. Wendi, first emperor of the Sui, expanded Chang’an: its outer walls were 6 mi (9.7 km) by 5 mi (8.2 km), with 14 avenues running north-south and 11 running east-west. The centre of the northern boundary was the site of the imperial palace; in front of it was an administrative compound 3 mi (4.5 km) square. Until the proscription of foreign religions in the 840s, Chang’an contained numerous Buddhist temples, along with Nestorian, Manichaean, and Zoroastrian churches and many Daoist monasteries. It was reduced to ruins in the 880s by the rebel Huang Zhao, and future dynasties estab¬ lished their capitals elsewhere.
Changchun or Ch'ang-ch'un \'chaq-'chun\ City (pop., 1999 est.: 2,072,324), capital of Jiun province, northeastern China. It was a small village until the end of the 18th century, when farmers from Shandong began to settle near the Sungari River. It gained in importance after the completion of the Chinese Eastern Railway. It came under Japanese con¬ trol following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. At the time the Japa¬ nese seized Manchuria in 1931, the capital of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo was moved from Mukden (Shenyang) to Changchun. Fol¬ lowing World War II, the city suffered severely in the fighting between communist and Nationalist forces but experienced phenomenal growth under Chinese communist rule. It is now a centre for industrial expan¬ sion, as well as the cultural and educational heart of the province.
Changchun See Qiu Chuji
change ringing Traditional English art of ringing tower or hand bells in a succession of different orders. Groups of swinging bells in English church towers date from the 10th century. Control of bell ringing was much enhanced with the invention of the bell wheel in the 14th century; further improvements in bearings and fittings allowed the bells to swing at the same speed and led to recognizably modern change ringing by the 17th century. A “ring” (set) of 6 bells can be tolled in 720 different
“changes” (orders); 8 bells allow 40,320 different changes, and 10 bells allow more than 3,000,000. In practice, only a selection of the possible changes is rung, derived by a “method” (a shuffling algorithm), usually involving switching pairs of bells in a certain order (e.g., 123456 becomes 214365, which can then become 241635, etc.). “Rounds”—all the bells in order from highest to lowest—is rung before and after a method is completed.
Changsha Vchaq-'sha\ or Ch'ang-sha City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,562,200), capital of Hunan province, south-central China. It was impor¬ tant from the time of the Qin dynasty (221-207 bc). In ad 750-1100 Changsha was an important commercial city, and its population increased greatly. Under the Qing dynasty, from 1664, it was the capital of Hunan province, and it was a major rice market. It was besieged during the Tap¬ ing Rebellion but never fell. Changsha was the site of Mao Zedong’s con¬ version to communism. It was the scene of major battles in the Sino- Japanese War of 1937-45 and was briefly occupied by the Japanese. Rebuilt since 1949, the city is now a major port and a commercial and industrial centre.