Chernyshevsky \ch9r-ni-'shef-ske\, N(ikolay) G(avrilovich) (b.
July 12, 1828, Saratov, Russia—d. Oct. 17, 1889, Saratov) Russian radi¬ cal journalist and politician. In 1854 he joined the staff of the review Sovremennik (“Contemporary”), where he focused on social and eco¬ nomic evils. Arrested on charges of subversion, he was imprisoned in 1862 and then exiled to Siberia, where he remained until 1883. While in prison he wrote the classic novel What Is to be Done? (1863), which greatly influenced future Russian revolutionaries.
Cherokee American Indian people of Iroquoian lineage living mostly in Oklahoma, U.S. Their traditional homeland is eastern Tennessee and the western Carolinas. Cherokee culture resembled that of the Creek and other Southeastern Indians. Their name is derived from a Creek word meaning “people of different speech”; many prefer to be known as Keetoowah or Tsalagi. Cherokee is an Iroquoian language, but it differs considerably from other Iroquoian languages. At the time of first contact, the Cherokee possessed stone implements, wove baskets, made pottery, cultivated com, beans, and squash, and hunted deer, bear, and elk. Wars and treaties in the late 18th century severely reduced Cherokee power and landholdings. After a series of failed raids against U.S. troops and civilian settlements, they ceded land to attain peace and to pay debts. After 1800 the Cherokee were remarkable for their assimilation of European/American culture, forming a government modeled on that of the U.S. and adopting European methods of farming and homemaking. Most became literate following the development of a syllabary by Sequoyah. Beginning c. 1835, when gold was discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia, agitation increased for their removal to the West. The ensuing events culminated in the Trail of Tears, which left some 4,000 Cherokee dead. People claiming sole Cherokee descent numbered some 281,000 in the 2000 U.S. census.
cherry Any of various trees of the genus Primus and their edible fruits. Most are native to the Northern Hemisphere, where they are widely grown. Three types are grown mainly for their fruit: sweet cherries (P. avium ); sour, or tart, cherries (P. cerasus)\ and, to a much lesser extent, dukes (crosses of sweet and sour cherries). Sweet-cherry trees are large, and their fruit is generally heart-shaped to nearly globular, var¬ ies in colour from yellow through red to nearly black, and has a low acid content. Sour-cherry trees are smaller and bear fruit that is round to oblate, generally dark red, and more acidic. Dukes are intermediate in both tree and fruit characteristics.
The wood of some cherry species is especially esteemed for the manufac¬ ture of fine furniture. Ornamental varieties selected for the beauty of their flowers are a common feature of gardens.
Cherry Valley Raid (Nov. 11, 1778) Attack during the American Revo¬ lution by Iroquois Indians on a New York frontier settlement. In retalia¬ tion for earlier assaults on two Indian villages, the Iroquois chief Joseph Brant joined with British loyalists to lead the attack on the fortified vil¬ lage at Cherry Valley. Thirty militiamen and settlers were killed.
Chersonese Vk3r-s3-,nez\ In ancient geography, any of several penin¬ sulas in Europe and Asia (the term means “peninsula”). Tauric Cherson¬ ese comprised the Crimea and often the city of Chersonese, near modern Sevastopol. The city, founded by Ionian Greeks in the 6th century bc, later
traded with Athens, Delos, and Rhodes and flourished under the Romans and Byzantines. Thracian Chersonese constituted the modern Gallipoli Peninsula. On the main trade route between Europe and Asia, it was the site of several cities founded by Aeolians and Ionians in the 7th century bc. Abandoned to Darius I in 493 bc, it came under Athenian control and was later dominated by Augustus.
chert and flint Very fine-grained quartz, a silica mineral with minor impurities. Flint is gray to black and nearly opaque (translucent brown in thin splinters). Opaque, dull, whitish to pale brown or gray specimens are called simply chert. Chert and flint provided the main source of tools and weapons for Stone Age people. Flint is used today as an abrasive agent on sandpapers and in mills that grind raw materials for the ceramic and paint industries. Considerable amounts of chert are also used in road con¬ struction and as concrete aggregate. Some chert takes an excellent polish and is used as semiprecious jewelry. See also siliceous rock.
cherub In Jewish, Christian, and Islamic literature, a celestial winged being with human, animal, or birdlike characteristics. They are included among the angels, and in the Hebrew scriptures they are described as the throne bearers of God. In Christianity and Islam they are celestial atten¬ dants of God and praise him continually. Known as karubun in Islam, they repeat “Glory to God” ceaselessly, and they dwell in a section of heaven inaccessible to attacks by the Devil. In art they are often depicted as winged infants. See also seraph.
Cherubini \ I ka-ru-'be-ne\, Luigi (Carlo Zanobi Salvadore Maria) (b. Sept. 14, 1760, Florence—d. March 15, 1842, Paris, France) Italian-French composer. Bom into a musical family, the precocious youth had written dozens of works before he was 20 years old. In 1786 he settled permanently in Paris. He enjoyed operatic successes in the 1790s, and Napoleon expressed his particular admiration. He became co-superintendent of the royal chapel in 1816 and in 1822 director of the Paris Conservatoire, where he would remain the rest of his life. Ludwig van Beethoven called Cherubini his greatest contemporary. His counter¬ point text (1835) was used widely for a century. Of his nearly 40 operas, the most popular were Lodoi'ska (1791), Medee (1797), and Les Deux Journees (1800). His other important works include a symphony (1815), six string quartets, requiems in C minor and D minor (1816, 1836), and nine surviving masses.
Chesapeake Vche-s9-,pek\ City (pop., 2000: 199,184), southeastern Virginia, U.S. Located south of Norfolk, it was formed as an independent city in 1963 by the merger of Norfolk county and the city of South Nor¬ folk. Its area of 341 sq mi (883 sq km) is one of the largest of U.S. cit¬ ies. Encompassing part of Dismal Swamp, it was once the home of the Chesapeake Indians and was settled by colonists in the 1630s.
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park Park, eastern U.S. It consists of the former Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, a waterway running along the Potomac River between Washington, D.C., and Cumberland, Md. The canal, which extends 185 mi (297 km), was built beginning in the 1820s. Competition from the railroads later caused its economic decline. The canal was purchased in 1938 by the U.S. gov¬ ernment; it was restored and established as a historical park in 1971.
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Co. (C&O) U.S. railroad com¬ pany established in 1868 with the consolidation of two smaller lines, the Virginia Central and the Covington and Ohio. The railroad later acquired several other lines, mainly in the upper South and the Midwest, which together became known as the Chessie System. In 1972 its passenger ser¬ vices were taken over by Amtrak, and in 1980 it merged with Seaboard Coast Line Industries, Inc., to form the CSX Corp.
Chesapeake Bay Inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, eastern U.S. With its lower section in Virginia and its upper section in Maryland, it is 193 mi (311 km) long and 3-25 mi (5-40 km) wide and has an area of about 3,230 sq mi (8,365 sq km). It receives many rivers, including the Susque¬ hanna, Patuxent, Potomac, and James. Jamestown, the area’s first Euro¬ pean settlement, was founded in 1607; a year later, Capt. John Smith explored and mapped the bay. The bay’s waters had supported vast amounts of marine life, but by the 1970s development of the surround¬ ing area led to alarming pollution of the bay; fishing dropped off sharply. Efforts have since been made to reverse the damage.