chestnut blight Plant disease caused by the fungus Endothia parasit¬ ica. Accidentally imported from East Asia and first observed in 1904 in New York, it has killed almost all native American chestnuts ( Castanea dentata ) in the U.S. and Canada and is destructive in other countries. Other blight-susceptible species include the European chestnut (C. sativa), the post oak ( Quercus stellata ), and the live oak. Symptoms include red¬ dish brown bark patches that develop into sunken or swollen and cracked cankers that kill twigs and limbs. Leaves on such branches turn brown and wither but remain attached for months. Gradually the entire tree dies. The fungus persists for years in short-lived sprouts from old chestnut roots and in less susceptible hosts. It is spread locally by splashing rain, wind, and insects, and over long distances by birds. Chinese (C. mollissima ) and Japanese (C. crenata) chestnuts are resistant.
Chetumal \,cha-tu-'mal\ City (pop., 2000: 121,602), capital of Quin¬ tana Roo state, Mexico. Located on the eastern coast of the Yucatan Pen¬ insula just north of Belize, it lies only 20 ft (6 m) above sea level. Founded in 1899, it became the territorial capital when Quintana Roo was sepa¬ rated from Yucatan state in 1902. It is set in tropical rainforests, and for¬ est products form the basis of the local economy.
chevalier See knight
Chevalier \sh3-val-'ya\, Maurice (b. Sept. 12,1888, Paris, France—d. Jan. 1, 1972, Paris) French singer and actor. He first appeared as a singer and comedian at the Folies- Bergere in 1909. He spent two years in a German prison camp during World War I. Known for his jaunty straw hat and bow tie and his lively, roguish manner, he went to Holly¬ wood in 1929, where he appeared in movies that helped establish the musical as a film genre, including The Love Parade (1929) and The Merry Widow (1934). He was criti¬ cized for entertaining the Germans during the wartime occupation of France. His later films include Gigi (1958) and Fanny (1961). In 1958 he was presented with an honorary
Academy Award. -
Cheviot Vshi-ve-9t\ Hills Range of hills along the England-Scotland border. Its highest elevation is Cheviot, at 2,676 ft (816 m). Evidence of prehistoric occupation is widespread. Part of the area was designated Northumberland National Park in 1956.
Chevreuse \sh3v-'rcez\, Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duch¬ ess de orig. Marie de Rohan-Montbazon known as Madame de Chevreuse (b. December 1600—d. Aug. 12, 1679, Gagny, France) French princess. She participated in several conspiracies against the min¬ isterial government in Louis Xlll’s reign and the regency for Louis XIV. She was exiled several times for her activities, including participating in a plot against Cardinal de Richelieu, betraying state secrets to Spain, and plotting to assassinate Jules Mazarin.
chevrotain Yshev-rs-.tanV or mouse deer Any of several species (family Tragulidae) of small, delicately built ruminants of Asia and Africa. Resembling tiny deer, chevrotains stand about 12 in. (30 cm) at the shoul¬
der and seem to walk on their hooftips. Their fur is reddish brown with spots and pale stripes. Males have small, curved tusks protruding down¬ ward from the upper jaw. Shy and solitary, they are active at night. Asi¬ atic chevrotains are found in forests from India to the Philippines. The water chevrotain of western equatorial Africa inhabits thick cover on the banks of rivers and seeks escape in the water when disturbed.
Chewa Bantu-speaking people of eastern Zambia, northwestern Zim¬ babwe, and Malawi. They practice shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture and they hunt and fish. Slavery was once universal among the Chewa. Descent, inheritance, and succession are matrilineal and polygyny is gen¬ eral. Chewa settlements are governed by a hereditary headman and a council of elders.
chewing or mastication Up-and-down and side-to-side movements of the lower jaw, using the teeth to grind food for easier swallowing. Dur¬ ing chewing, the tongue shapes food into a lump and saliva lubricates it for swallowing. Chewing softens tough meat or vegetable fibres and exposes them to digestive enzymes.
chewing gum Sweetened product made from chicle and similar resil¬ ient substances that is chewed for its flavour. Tree resins have been chewed as teeth cleaners and breath fresheners since ancient times. The latex (called chicle) of the Central American sapodilla tree was first used to mass-produce chewing gum in the 19th century; its plasticity, insolu¬ bility in water, and ability to hold a flavour made it an ideal chewing-gum base. After World War II other gums and synthetic rubbers came to replace chicle.
Cheyenne Plains Indian people of Algonquian stock (see Algonquian languages), living principally in Montana and Oklahoma, U.S. Originally farmers, hunters, and gatherers who lived in central Minnesota, the Chey¬ enne moved in the early 19th century to regions around the Platte and Arkansas rivers and split into the Northern Cheyenne and the Southern Cheyenne. In these areas they adopted the lifestyle of the Plains Indians; after acquiring horses, they became more dependent on the buffalo for food and developed a tepee-dwelling nomadic mode of life. They per¬ formed the sun dance and placed heavy emphasis on visions in which an animal spirit adopted the individual and bestowed special powers on him. They had well-organized military societies and fought constantly with the Kiowa until c. 1840. In the 1870s they participated in various Indian uprisings, joining the Sioux at Little Bighorn in 1876. More than 11,100 people claimed sole Cheyenne descent in the 2000 U.S. census.
Cheyenne \shl-'an\ City (pop., 2000: 53,011), capital of Wyoming, U.S. It is the state’s largest city and has been the capital since 1869. It became an outfitting point for the Black Hills goldfields to the northeast and a major shipping point for cattle from Texas. Its own grazing lands became famed for their herds and cattle barons. In July it celebrates Frontier Days, which includes one of America’s oldest and largest rodeos. Nearby Fort Francis E. Warren was the site of the nation’s first intercontinental ballistic mis¬ sile base (1957).
Cheyenne River River, northern central U.S. Rising in eastern Wyo¬ ming, it flows northeast 527 mi (850 km) to join the Missouri River in cen¬ tral South Dakota. Angostura Dam, part of the Missouri River basin irrigation project, is on the river near Hot Springs, S.D.
Cheyne \'chan. Sir William Watson (b. Dec. 14, 1852, at sea off Hobart, Tas.—d. April 19, 1932, Fetlar, Shetland Islands, Scot.) English surgeon and bacteriologist. His early work on preventive medicine and bacterial causes of disease was strongly influenced by that of Robert Koch. He became a devoted follower of Joseph Lister and was a pioneer of anti¬ septic surgical methods in Britain. He published the important works Antiseptic Surgery (1882) and Lister and His Achievements (1885).
Chhattisgarh State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 20,795,956), central India. Bordered by Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra states, it occupies 52,199 sq mi (135,194 sq km); its capital is Raipur. The Chhattisgarh Plain covers much of the state, with the land becoming more hilly to the north and west. The area now comprising Chhattisgarh was the eastern portion of Madhya Pradesh state before it was made into a separate state in 2000. It is rich in minerals, but the population is mainly engaged in agriculture.
Ch'i See Qi ch'i See qi
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388 I Chi-lin ► Chicago
Chi-lin See Jilin ch'i-lin See qilin Chi-nan See Jinan
Chiang Ching-kuo or Jiang Jingguo Vje-'aq-'jiq-'gwoV (b. March 18, 1910, Qikou, Zhejiang province, China—d. Jan. 13, 1988, Taipei, Tai¬ wan) Son of Chiang Kai-shek, and his successor as leader of the Nation¬ alist government in Taiwan. He was formally elected by the National Assembly to a six-year presidential term in 1978 and reelected in 1984. He tried to maintain Taiwan’s foreign-trade relationships and political independence as other countries began to break off diplomatic relations in order to establish ties with mainland China. Other actions during his presidency included ending martial law, allowing opposition parties, and encouraging native-born Taiwanese to participate in government.