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Chicago literary renaissance ► Chickasaw I 389
stock in 1983. The system served an 11-state region west of Lake Michi¬ gan, with principal routes in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska. It was purchased by Union Pacific in 1995.
Chicago literary renaissance Flourishing of literary activity in Chicago c. 1912-25. Its leading writers— Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, Edgar Lee Masters, and Carl Sandburg —realistically depicted the contemporary urban environment, condemning the loss of traditional rural values in the increasingly industrialized and materialistic American society. Associated with the period were the Little Theatre, an outlet for young playwrights; the Little Room, a literary group; and magazines such as The Dial , Poetry, and The Little Review. The renaissance also encom¬ passed a revitalization of newspaper journalism as a literary medium.
Chicago Race Riot of 1919 Most severe of about 25 race riots throughout the U.S. in the summer after World War I. Racial friction was intensified by the migration of African Americans to the North. On Chi¬ cago’s South Side, the African American population had increased in 10 years from 44,000 to 109,000. The riot was triggered by the death of an African American youth swimming in Lake Michigan near a beach reserved for whites; he was stoned and he shortly drowned. When police refused to arrest the white man allegedly responsible, fighting broke out between gangs of African Americans and whites. Violence spread throughout the city, unchecked by the state militia. After 13 days, 38 people were dead (23 African Americans, 15 whites), and 537 injured, and 1,000 African American families were made homeless.
Chicago River River, northeastern Illinois, U.S. A small river, consist¬ ing of a northern and a southern branch, it originally flowed through Chi¬ cago into Lake Michigan. After a severe storm in 1885 caused the river to empty large amounts of polluted water into the lake, the river’s flow was reversed by constructing a canal, completed in 1900, the building of which was considered a significant engineering feat. Now flowing inland, it is connected with the Des Plaines River by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal.
Chicago School Group of architects and engineers who in the 1890s exploited the twin developments of structural steel framing and the elec¬ trified elevator, paving the way for the ubiquitous modern-day skyscraper. Their work earned Chicago a reputation as the “birthplace of modern architecture.” Among the school’s members were Louis Sullivan, Daniel Burnham, and John Wellborn Root (1850-91).
Chicago Tribune Daily newspaper published in Chicago. The Tribune is one of the leading U.S. newspapers and long has been the dominant voice of the Midwest. Founded in 1847, it was bought in 1855 by six partners, including Joseph Medill (1823-99), who made the paper suc¬ cessful and increased its stature while promulgating his generally liberal views. He bought a controlling interest in 1874 and was publisher until his death. During Robert McCormick’s tenure (1914-55), the paper achieved the largest circulation among U.S. standard-sized newspapers and led the world in newspaper advertising revenue. The Tribune also reflected his nationalist-isolationist views, but its editorial positions mod¬ erated after his death. It subsequently became the flagship of the Tribune Company, which has holdings in broadcasting, cable TV, publishing, and other media.
Chichen Itza \che-'chen-et-'sa\ Ancient ruined Mayan city in Mexico’s Yucatan state. Chichen Itza was founded by the Maya about the 6th cen¬ tury ad in an arid region where water was obtained from natural wells called cenotes. The city was invaded in the 10th century—probably by a Mayan-speaking group under strong Toltec influence—and the invaders constructed another series of buildings, including the famous stepped pyramid known as El Castillo and a ball court. The site, though largely abandoned by the time the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, remained sacred to the Maya people. It was designated a World Heritage site in 1988. See photograph opposite.
Chicherin \chi-'cher-yin\, Georgy (Vasilyevich) (b. Nov. 24, 1872, Tambov province, Russia—d. July 7, 1936, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Russian diplomat. An aristocrat by birth, he entered the imperial diplo¬ matic service in 1897 but resigned to join the revolutionary movement and the Menshevik faction (1905). In 1918 he joined the Bolsheviks and resumed his diplomatic career, helping negotiate the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk. As people’s commissar for foreign affairs (1918-28), he led the Soviet delegation to the Conference of Genoa and later secretly negoti¬ ated the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany.
Chichester City (pop., 2001: 27,477), Chichester district, administra¬ tive county of West Sussex, England. It is located northeast of Portsmouth. The basic plan of the Roman town is preserved in the modem one. The economy relies mainly on agriculture and retailing. Chichester is noted for its early Norman cathedral, begun in the late 11th century, and for its pastoral landscapes.
chickadee Any of several North American songbird species in the genus Parus (family Paridae), whose name imitates their call notes. They are friendly and easily attracted to feeders. The black-capped chickadee (P. atricapillus), found across North America, is 5 in. (13 cm) long and has a dark cap and bib. Old World members of the genus and some New World members are called TITS or tit¬ mice.
Chickamauga, Battle of (Sept.
19-20, 1863) Engagement in the American Civil War fought over con¬ trol of the railroad centre of nearby Chattanooga, Tenn. Confederate forces under Braxton Bragg and James Longstreet attacked Union forces under William Rosecrans. After two days of fierce fighting, most of the Union army withdrew in disorder, though troops under George H. Thomas withstood the assault until the assistance of a reserve corps made possible an orderly withdrawal to Chattanooga. Casualties numbering 16,000 Union and 18,000 Confederate troops made this one of the bloodi¬ est battles of the war. Bragg and the Confederate force did not follow up their victory, and the subsequent Battle of Chattanooga reversed the results.
Chickasaw North American Indian people living mainly in Oklahoma, U.S. Their language, Chickasaw, is a Muskogean language closely related to that of the Choctaw. The Chickasaw, who once inhabited Kentucky, Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and Alabama, were a seminomadic people whose dwellings were loosely scattered along rivers rather than clustered in villages. They traced descent through the maternal line. The supreme deity was associated with the sky, sun, and fire. They frequently raided and intermarried with other tribes, and they were known to white traders as “mixed-bloods” or “breeds.” In the 1830s they were forcibly removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). In the 2000 U.S. census some 20,000 individuals claimed sole Chickasaw descent.
The Castillo (background) and a portion of the Colonnade, Chichen Itza
JOSEF MUENCH
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390 I chicken ► child abuse
chicken One of the most widely domesticated poultry species ( Gallus gallus ), raised worldwide for its meat and eggs. Descended from the wild red jungle fowl of India, chickens have been domesticated for at least 4,000 years. Not until the 19th century did chicken meat and eggs become mass- production commodities. Modem high-volume poultry farms, with rows of cages stacked indoors for control of heat, light, and humidity, began to pro¬ liferate in Britain c. 1920 and in the U.S. after World War II (see factory farming). Females are raised for meat and eggs; immature males are cas¬ trated to become meat birds called capons. See also prairie chicken.