Christian Science Monitor, The Daily newspaper of national and international news and features, published Monday through Friday in Bos¬ ton under the auspices of the Church of Christ, Scientist (see Christian Science). Established in 1908 at the urging of Mary Baker Eddy as a pro¬ test against the sensationalism of the popular press, it became one of the most respected U.S. newspapers, famous for its thoughtful treatment of the news and for the quality of its assessments of political, social, and economic developments. It strictly limits the kinds of advertising it accepts. It maintains its own bureaus to gather news abroad and publishes a weekly world edition. The newspaper won its sixth Pulitzer Prize in 1996, in the category of international reporting.
Christian Social Union (CSU) Conservative German political party that was founded in Bavaria, West Germany, in 1946 by Roman Catholic
Christian IV, detail of an oil painting by Pieter Isaacsz, 1612; in Frederiksborg Castle, Denmark
COURTESY OF DET NATIONALHISTORISKE MUSEUM PA FREDERIKSBORG, DEN.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Christian socialism ► Christopher I 401
and Protestant groups. It was committed to free enterprise, federalism, and a united Europe that would operate under Christian principles. From 1946 it held the government of Bavaria continuously, except in 1954-57. In national elections it usually cooperated with the Christian Democratic Union.
Christian socialism Social and political movement originating in mid-19th-century Europe. Christian socialists attempted to combine the fundamental aims of socialism with the religious and ethical convictions of Christianity, promoting cooperation over competition as a means of helping the poor. The term was coined in Britain in 1848 after the failure of the reform movement known as Chartism. Christian socialism found followers in France and Germany, though the German group, led by Adolf Stoecker, combined its activities with violent anti-Semitism. Although the movement died out in the U.S. in the early 20th century, it retains an important following in Europe.
Christiania See Oslo
Christianity Religion stemming from the teachings of Jesus in the 1st century ad. Its sacred scripture is the Bible, particularly the New Testament. Its principal tenets are that Jesus is the Son of God (the second person of the Holy Trinity), that God’s love for the world is the essential component of his being, and that Jesus died to redeem humankind. Christianity was originally a movement of Jews who accepted Jesus as the Messiah, but the movement quickly became predominantly Gentile. The early church was shaped by St. Paul and other Christian missionaries and theologians; it was persecuted under the Roman Empire but supported by Constantine I, the first Christian emperor. In medieval and early modern Europe, Chris¬ tian thinkers such as St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Martin Luther contributed to the growth of Christian theology, and beginning in the 15th century missionaries spread the faith throughout much of the world. The major divisions of Christianity are Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. Nearly all Christian churches have an ordained clergy, members of which are typically though not universally male. Members of the clergy lead group worship services and are viewed as intermedi¬ aries between the laity and the divine in some churches. Most Christian churches administer two sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist. In the early 21st century there were more than two billion adherents of Chris¬ tianity throughout the world, found on all continents.
Christie, Dame Agatha (Mary Clarissa) (b. Sept. 15, 1890, Torquay, Devon, Eng.—d. Jan. 12,
1976, Wallingford, Oxfordshire)
British detective novelist and play¬ wright. Her first novel, The Mysteri¬ ous Affair at Styles (1920), introduced Hercule Poirot, the eccentric Belgian detective who would appear in about 25 novels.
The elderly spinster Miss Jane Mar- pie, her other principal detective fig¬ ure, first appeared in Murder at the Vicarage (1930). Most of her approximately 75 novels, such as Murder on the Orient Express (1933; film, 1978), were best-sellers; trans¬ lated into 100 languages, they have sold more than 100 million copies. Her plays include The Mousetrap (1952), which set a world record for longest continuous run, and Witness for the Prosecution (1953; film, 1958). She was married to the eminent archaeologist Sir Max Mallowan
(1904-78).
Christie's Popular name for the London firm of Christie, Manson & Woods, the oldest fine-arts auctioneers in the world. It was founded by James Christie (1730-1803), who opened his salesrooms in 1766. He became friends with Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough, among others, and developed a tradition of holding studio sales for prominent artists. Christie’s has handled some of the most important art sales in his¬ tory, including the sale of paintings to Catherine II the Great of Russia. The firm, which became a public company in 1973, now has branches all over the world.
Christina Swedish Kristina (b. Dec. 8, 1626, Stockholm, Swed.—d. April 19, 1689, Rome) Queen of Sweden (1644-54). The successor to her father, Gustav II Adolf, she was a prime mover in concluding the Peace of Westphalia and ending the Thirty Years' War. After 10 years of rule, she
stunned Europe by abdicating the throne, claiming that she was ill and that the burden of ruling was too heavy for a woman. Her real reasons were her aversion to marriage and her secret conversion to Roman Catholicism, which was proscribed in Sweden. She moved to Rome and subsequently attempted, without success, to gain the crowns of Naples and Poland. One of the wittiest and most learned women of her age, she was a lavish patroness of the arts and an influence on European culture.
Christine de Pisan or Chris¬ tine de Pizan \kres-'ten-do-pe- 'za n \ (b. 1364, Venice—d. c. 1430)
French writer. She was the daughter of an astrologer to Charles V and the wife of a court secretary and took up writing to support her children when she was widowed, producing 10 vol¬ umes of graceful verse, including ballads, rondeaux, lays, and complaints, many in the courtly-love tradition. Some works, both poetry and prose, champion women, notably The Book of the City of Ladies (1405). She also wrote a life of Charles V and Le Ditie de Jehanne d’Arc (1429), inspired by Joan of Arc’s early victories.
Christmas Christian festival celebrated on December 25, commemo¬ rating the birth of Jesus. December 25 had already been identified by Sex¬ tus Julius Africanus in ad 221 as the day on which Christmas would be celebrated, and it was celebrated in Rome by ad 336. During the Middle Ages Christmas became extremely popular, and various liturgical cel¬ ebrations of the holiday were established. The practice of exchanging gifts had begun by the 15th century. The Yule log, cakes, and fir trees derive from German and Celtic customs. Christmas today is regarded as a fam¬ ily festival with gifts brought by Santa Claus (see St. Nicholas). As an increasingly secular festival, it has come to be celebrated by many non- Christians.
Christmas tree Evergreen tree, usually decorated with lights and orna¬ ments, to celebrate the Christmas season. The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands as symbols of eternal life was common among the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews. The Christian symbol can be traced to a German medieval play about Adam and Eve, which included the “paradise tree,” hung with apples. The modem, decorated version was widespread among German Lutherans by the 18th century. Brought to North America by German settlers in the 17th century, it had become widespread there by the mid-19th century. It was popularized in 19th- century England by Victoria’s consort, the German Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg.