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chromosphere Layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, several thousand miles thick, above the photosphere and below the corona. The chromosphere (literally “colour sphere”) is briefly visible as a thin ring, red from hydro¬ gen’s emission spectrum, during solar eclipses when the photosphere is obscured by the Moon. At other times it can be observed only with spe¬ cial instruments. Its temperatures range from about 7,000 °F (4,000 °C) about 700 mi (1,100 km) above the photosphere, increasing with altitude to several hundred thousand degrees. Solar flares and solar prominences are mainly chromospheric phenomena.
chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) Sudden debilitating fatigue of unknown cause. It may follow a nonspecific illness with mild fever, tender lymph nodes, sore throat, headaches, weakness, muscle and joint pain, and confusion or difficulty in concentrating. To meet the criteria of CFS, the syndrome must be new, with a definite point of onset, and must persist more than six months. Once dismissed as imaginary, CFS remains controversial. Many authorities question whether it is a distinct disorder, since there is considerable overlap with other conditions such as fibromyalgia and Gulf War syndrome. No diagnostic test for CFS exists. Although a number of theories about the cause of CFS have been advanced, none has been proved. No cure has been found, but most patients improve gradually.
chronicle play or history play Play with a theme from history that often holds up the past as a lesson for the present. Chronicle plays devel-
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chronometer ► Chuikov I 403
oped from medieval morality plays and flourished in times of nationalistic fervour, as in England from the 1580s to the 1630s. They included plays such as The Victories of Henry the Fifth and The True Tragedie of Rich¬ ard III and reached maturity with Christopher Marlowe’s Edward II and William Shakespeare’s Henry VI.
chronometer \kr9-'na-mo-t9r\ Mechanical timekeeping device of great accuracy, particularly one used for determining longitude (see latitude and longitude) at sea. Early weight- and pendulum-driven clocks were inac¬ curate because of friction and temperature changes and could not be used at sea because of the ship’s motion. In 1735 John Harrison invented and constructed the first of four practical marine timekeepers. The modern marine chronometer is suspended to remain horizontal whatever the incli¬ nation of the ship and differs in parts of its mechanism from the ordinary watch. A chronometer may provide timekeeping accurate to within 0.1 second per day. See also Ferdinand Berthoud.
Chrysander \kriE- , zan-d3r\ / (Karl Franz) Friedrich (b. July 8, 1826, Ltibtheen, Mecklenburg—d. Sept. 3, 1901, Hamburg) German musicologist. Trained as a schoolteacher, he soon became involved in music scholarship and published studies of folk song (1853). One of the founders of the discipline of musicology (with Philipp Spitta and Guido Adler), he wrote on a wide range of subjects, but his great project was the first edition of the complete works of George Frideric Handel, to which he devoted the years 1858-94.
chrysanthemum Ucri-'san-tho-.monA Any of the ornamental plants that make up the genus Chrysanthemum , in the composite family. The genus includes about 100 species native primarily to subtropical and temperate areas of the Old World. Cultivated species, often called mums, have large flower heads; those of wild species are much smaller. Most species have aromatic, alternate leaves. Some have both disk and ray flowers in the heads; others lack ray flowers. Costmary (C. balsamita ), pyrethrum, mar¬ guerite, Shasta daisy (hybrid forms of C. maximum ), florists’ chrysanthe¬ mum (C. morifolium), feverfew (C. parthenium ), com marigold (C. segetum), and TANSY are popular garden plants. Feverfew and pyrethrum are used in insecticides; feverfew and tansy were formerly used in medi¬ cines.
Chrysler Building Office building (1928-30) in New York City designed by William Van Alen (1883-1954). The epitome of sleek Art Deco design, its tapering sunburst-patterned stainless-steel spire remains a striking feature of the Manhattan skyline. Much of its futuristic auto¬ motive ornamentation was specified by its owner, Walter P. Chrysler (see Chrysler Corp.). It was briefly the tallest in the world (1,048 ft [319.4 m]) until the Empire State Building opened in 1931.
Chrysler Corp. Former U.S. automotive company first incorporated in 1925; now part of Daimler-Benz. It was founded by Walter P. Chrysler (1875-1940), who built it into the country’s second largest automobile manufacturer, noted for its Plymouth, Dodge, and Chrysler cars. In 1980 the corporation was rescued from the verge of bankruptcy by a government bailout organized by Lee Iacocca. In 1998 Chrysler Corp. merged with the German automaker Daimler-Benz to become Daimler Chrysler AG.
Chrysostom Vkris-os-tonA,
Saint John (b. 347, Antioch,
Syria—d. Sept. 14, 407, Comana,
Helenopontus; Western feast day September 13; Eastern feast day November 13) Early Church Father, biblical interpreter, and archbishop of Constantinople. He was raised as a Christian and lived as a hermit until his health gave way, after which he returned to Antioch and was ordained a priest. He earned a repu¬ tation as a great preacher (Chrysos¬ tom means “golden-mouthed”).
Against his wishes, he was appointed archbishop of Constantinople in 398.
He angered the wealthy with his con¬ cern for the poor and his criticisms of the misuse of riches. A synod con¬ vened in 403 by Theophilus of Alex¬ andria condemned him on 29 charges and banished him to Armenia. He
died en route to a more distant exile on the Black Sea. In 438 his relics were brought to Constantinople, and he was rehabilitated by the church.
chrysotile Vkri-so-.tllN Fibrous variety of the magnesium silicate min¬ eral serpentine; it is the most important asbestos mineral. Individual fibres are white and silky, but the aggregate in veins is usually green or yellow¬ ish. Chrysotile fibres have a high tensile strength, similar to that of other asbestos minerals (see amphibole asbestos). The largest deposits of chryso¬ tile are in Quebec and in the Ural Mountains.
Chu or Ch'u One of the states contending for power in China, 770-221 bc. Chu emerged in the 8th century bc in the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley, then not a part of China. It struggled with other states for supreme control over China in the 3rd century bc but lost out to Qin, which formed the first great Chinese empire.
Chu Hsi See Zhu Xi
Chu-ko Liang See Zhuge Liang
Chu Teh See Zhu De
Ch'u Yuan See Qu Yuan
Chu Yuan-chang See Hongwu emperor
Chuan Leekpai (b. July 28, 1938, Muang district, Trang province, Thai.) Prime minister of Thailand (1992-95, 1997-2001). Son of a school¬ teacher, he became a lawyer and was first elected a member of Parliament in 1969. He served in various capacities in the government and was first made prime minister in 1992 after his predecessor resigned in the wake of street violence brought on by Thailand’s worsening economic crisis. He lost elections in 1995 largely because his government was seen as plodding and slow, but he was returned to power in 1997; he stepped down in 2001 after his party had lost in national parliamentary elections. He was Thailand’s first prime minister to come to power without either aris¬ tocratic or military backing.
Chuang-tzu See Zhuangzi
chub Any of several freshwater fishes of the carp family that are com¬ monly caught for bait, sport, and food. Popular species include the European chub ( Leuciscus cephalus ) of Europe and Great Britain, a vora¬ cious predator of insects and other fish, and, in North America, the creek chub, or horned dace ( Semoti- lus atromaculatus ), and the homy- head chub ( Nocomis , or Hybopsis, biguttata). These species range in length from 6 to 24 in. (15-60 cm).