Their colours vary, tending toward bluish or greenish above with a lighter or silvery belly. The name is applied to many cyprinids in North America and to other, unrelated fishes elsewhere.
Chubut \chu-'but\ River River, southern Argentina. Rising in the Andes Mountains, it flows eastward across Chubut province 500 mi (800 km) before emptying into the Atlantic Ocean at Punta Castro. It is unnavigable, but its lower course irrigates the adjacent valley, which is agriculturally important.
Chughtai, Abdur Rahman (b. Sept. 21, 1894, Lahore, Pak.—d. Jan. 17, 1975, Lahore) Pakistani artist. In the 1920s he created large waterco¬ lours in a modified Bengal-school style. By the 1940s his painting style was influenced by Mughal architecture, Islamic calligraphy, miniature painting, and Art Nouveau, and his diverse subject matter included heroes and heroines from Islamic history, Mughal kings and queens, and episodes from Punjabi, Persian, and Indo-Islamic legends and folktales. After the partition of the subcontinent in 1947, he came to be known as the national artist of Pakistan.
Chuikov \'chu-i- 1 kof\ / Vasily (Ivanovich) (b. Feb. 12, 1900, Sere- bryannye Prudy, near Moscow, Russian Empire—d. March 18, 1982, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.) Soviet general. He joined the Red Army at age 18. In World War II he commanded the defense at the Battle of Stal¬ ingrad, joined in turning Adolf Hitler’s armies back, and led the Soviet drive to Berlin. He personally accepted the German surrender of Berlin
St. John Chrysostom, detail of a 12th- century mosaic; in the Palatine Chapel, Palermo, Sicily, Italy.
ANDERSON-AUNARI FROM ART RESOURCE
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
404 I chukar ► Churchill
in 1945. After the war he commanded the Soviet occupation forces in Germany (1949-53). He headed the Kiev military district (1953-60) and thereafter held a variety of military assignments in Moscow.
chukar Vcho-korN Popular small game bird (.Alectoris chukar ), a species of partridge. Stocked in many countries, it is native from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria. It has a brown back with strongly barred sides and a black-outlined whitish throat.
Chukchi See Siberian peoples
Chula Vista V.chii-lo-'vis-toX City (pop., 2000: 173,556), southwestern California, U.S. It lies on the eastern shore of San Diego Bay south of San Diego. Laid out in 1888 by the Santa Fe Railway and named for its “pretty view,” it developed as a citrus centre, later turned to truck gar¬ dening, and is now primarily residential.
Chulalongkorn VchU-'la-'loq-'koM or Phrachunlachomklao
\ I pra-chun- l la- l kom- , klau\ or Rama V (b. Sept. 30, 1853, Bangkok, Siam [Thailand]—d. Oct. 23, 1910,
Bangkok) King of Siam (r. 1868—
1910). He succeeded to the throne at 15 but did not assume his duties until he was 20. He enacted ambitious reforms patterned on Western mod¬ els, abolishing slavery, instituting the rule of impersonal law, and over¬ hauling his antiquated administra¬ tion. By persuading Western colonial powers that Siam was a modem state and playing their interests against one another, he kept Siam from being colonized for decades. How¬ ever, in 1907 Siam was forced to give up its rights in Laos and west¬ ern Cambodia to the French, and in 1909 it ceded four Malay states to Britain.
chum salmon or dog salmon
Lightly speckled North Pacific fish (Oncorhynchus keta) of the salmon family. The chum salmon ranges from the Mackenzie and Lena rivers in the southern Arctic southward to Japan and the Rogue River. Its weight averages about 10-12 lbs (4.5-5.5 kg). During the autumn spawning sea¬ son it swims more than 2,000 mi (3,200 km) up the Yukon River.
Ch'ung-ch'ing See Chongqing Chung Yung See Zhong yong Chungking See Chongqing
Chunqiu or Ch'un-ch'iu \'chun-'chyu\ (Chinese: “Spring and Autumn Annals”) First Chinese chronological history, the traditional history of Lu, as revised by Confucius. One of the Five Classics of Confucianism, it recounts events during the reign of 12 rulers of Lu from 722 bc to just before Confucius’s death in 479 bc. The Confucian Dong Zhongshu claimed that the natural phenomena recorded (e.g., drought, eclipse) were intended to warn future rulers of what happens when leaders prove unwor¬ thy. Since Confucian scholars were official interpreters of the classics, the book was a means for imposing Confucian ideals. The commentary called Zuo zhuan is significant.
church Building for Christian worship. The earliest Western churches were based on the plan of the Roman basilica. In Constantinople, Anato¬ lia, and Eastern Europe, the Orthodox church adopted the symmetrical Greek-cross plan, which had four wings of equal size projecting from a central, square, domed area (see Byzantine architecture). The late 11th cen¬ tury saw increased complexity in cathedrals, but the innovative hall church did not establish itself until the 14th century. The basilica and hall church dominated Western church design until the mid-20th century. Moderniza¬ tion of rituals and an innovative spirit have resulted in architectural experi¬ mentation that sometimes departs completely from traditional forms.
church In Christian doctrine, the religious community as a whole, or an organized body of believers adhering to one sect’s teachings. The word church translates the Greek ekklesia , used in the New Testament for the body of faithful and the local congregation. Christians established congre¬
gations modeled on the synagogue and a system of governance centred on the bishop. The Nicene Creed characterized the church as one (unified), holy (created by the Holy Spirit), catholic (universal), and apostolic (historically continuous with the Apostles). The schism of Eastern and Western churches (1054) and the Reformation (16th century) ended institutional unity and universality. St. Augustine stated that the real church is known only to God, and Martin Luther held that the true church had members in many Christian bodies and was independent of any organization.
Church, Alonzo (b. June 14, 1903, Washington, D.C., U.S.—d. Aug. 11, 1995, Hudson, Ohio) U.S. mathematician. He earned a Ph.D. from Princeton University. His contributions to number theory and the theories of algorithms and computability laid the foundations of computer science. The rule known as Church’s theorem or Church’s thesis (proposed inde¬ pendently by Alan M. Turing) states that only recursive functions can be calculated mechanically and implies that arithmetic procedures cannot be used to decide the consistency of statements formulated in accordance with the laws of arithmetic. He wrote the standard textbook Introduction to Mathematical Logic (1956) and helped found the Journal of Symbolic Logic, which he edited until 1979.
Church, Frederic Edwin (b. May 4, 1826, Hartford, Conn., U.S.—d. April 7, 1900, near New York, N.Y.) U.S. landscape painter. He studied with Thomas Cole in Catskill, N.Y., and soon became one of the most prominent members of the Hudson River school. He traveled widely, seek¬ ing out spectacular scenery and marvels of nature such as Niagara Falls, volcanoes, icebergs, and the tropical forests of South America, and he achieved fame and success at home and in Europe. His house, Olana, on the Hudson River, is now a museum.
church and state Relationship between religious and secular author¬ ity in society. In most ancient civilizations the separation of religious and political orders was not clearly defined. With the advent of Christianity, the idea of two separate orders emerged, based on Jesus’s command to “Render unto Caesar what are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s” (Mark 12:17). The close association of religion and politics, how¬ ever, continued even after the triumph of Christianity as emperors such as Constantine exercised authority over both church and state. In the early Middle Ages secular rulers claimed to rule by the grace of God, and later in the Middle Ages popes and emperors competed for universal domin¬ ion. During the Investiture Controversy the church clearly defined separate and distinct religious and secular orders, even though it laid the founda¬ tion for the so-called papal monarchy. The Reformation greatly under¬ mined papal authority, and the pendulum swung toward the state, with many monarchs claiming to rule church and state by divine right. The concept of secular government, as evinced in the U.S. and postrevolu¬ tionary France, was influenced by Enlightenment thinkers. In western Europe today all states protect freedom of worship and maintain a dis¬ tinction between civil and religious authority. The legal systems of some modern Islamic countries are based on SHARfAH. In the U.S. the separa¬ tion of church and state has been tested in the arena of public education by controversies over issues such as school prayer, public funding of parochial schools, and the teaching of creationism.