church mode In music, any one of eight scalar modes employed for medieval liturgical melodies. The modal system was conceived for the purpose of codifying plainchant (see Gregorian chant); the names of the modes were borrowed from the system used by the ancient Greeks, though the Greek system was inadequately understood and the connection between the two is illusory. The modes are distinguished according to the note used as the final (last note) and the emphasis placed on another note, called the dominant. The Dorian mode’s final is D, the Phrygian mode’s is E, the Lydian mode’s is F, and the Mixolydian’s is G. Each of these four original modes had a parallel mode (Hypodorian, Hypophrygian, Hypoly- dian, and Hypomixolydian) with a lower range. Though they principally employ the tones A-B-C-D-E-F-G, some replace B with B-flat. In the 16th century, further modes were identified—the Aeolian, on A, and the Ionian, on C (corresponding to modern minor and major). The mode on B was ignored because of B’s problematic tonal relationship within the scale.
Church of Christ See Church of Christ Church of England See Church of England
Churchill, Randolph (Henry Spencer), Lord (b. Feb. 13, 1849, Blenheim Palace, near Woodstock, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 24, 1895, London) British politician. Third son of the 7th duke of Marlborough, he
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entered the House of Commons in 1874. In the early 1880s he joined other Conservatives in forming the Fourth Party, which advocated a “Tory democracy” of progressive conservatism. In 1886, at age 37, he became leader of the House of Commons and chancellor of the Exchequer, but he resigned after his first budget was rejected. Though he had seemed destined to be prime minister, this miscalculation effectively ended his political career. He remained in the Commons until his death, but he lost interest in politics and devoted much time to horse racing. Winston Churchill was his son.
Churchill, Sir Winston (Leonard Spencer) (b. Nov. 30, 1874, Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 24, 1965, London) British statesman and author. Son of Lord Randolph Churchill and the American Jennie Jerome, he had an unhappy childhood and was an unpromising student. After joining the 4th Hussars in 1895, he saw service as both a soldier and a journalist, and his dispatches from India and South Africa attracted wide attention. Fame as a military hero helped him win election to the House of Commons in 1900. He quickly rose to prominence and served in several cabinet posts, including first lord of the Admiralty (1911-15), though in World War I and during the following decade he acquired a reputation for erratic judgment. In the years before World War II, his warnings of the threat posed by Adolf Hitler’s Germany were repeat¬ edly ignored. When war broke out, he was appointed to his old post as head of the Admiralty. After Neville Chamberlain resigned, Churchill headed a coalition government as prime minister (1940^15). He commit¬ ted himself and the nation to an all-out war until victory was achieved, and his great eloquence, energy, and indomitable fortitude made him an inspiration to his countrymen, especially in the Battle of Britain. With Franklin Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin, he shaped Allied strategy through the Atlantic Charter and at the Cairo, Casablanca, and Tehran conferences. Though he was the architect of victory, his government was defeated in the 1945 elections. After the war he alerted the West to the expansionist threat of the Soviet Union. He led the Conservative Party back into power in 1951 and remained prime minister until 1955, when ill health forced his resignation. For his many writings, including The Second World War (6 vol., 1948-53) he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953; his later works include his History of the English-Speaking Peoples (4 vol., 1956-58). He was knighted in 1953; he later refused the offer of a peerage. He was made an honorary U.S. citizen in 1963. In his late years he attained heroic status as one of the titans of the 20th century.
Churchill Fall s formerly Grand Falls Part of a series of cataracts and rapids on the Churchill River, Newfoundland, Canada. The falls drop 245 ft (75 m) and are 200 ft (60 m) wide. They power one of Canada’s largest hydroelectric stations. Visited in 1839 by John McLean of the Hudson's Bay Company, the cataracts were called Grand Falls until 1965, when both falls and river were renamed for Winston Churchill, who died that year.
Churchill River River, central Canada. Rising in north-central Saskatchewan, it flows east across Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba and turns northeast into Hudson Bay at Churchill. About 1,000 mi (1,609 km) long, it passes through several lakes, including Churchill Lake (213 sq mi [552 sq km]) in Saskatchewan and Granville Lake in Manitoba.
churinga See tjurunga
Churrigueresque \,chur-i-g3-'resk\ Spanish Rococo architectural style named after the architect Jose Churriguera (1665-1725). Visually frenetic, it featured a plethora of extravagant ornament and surfaces bris¬ tling with broken pediments, undulating cornices, spirals, balustrades, stucco shells, and garlands. In Spanish America, tendencies from both Native American and Mudejar (Spanish-Moorish) art were incorporated, and the Churrigueresque column, an inverted cone, became the most com¬ mon motif.
ChQzenji \chu-'zen-je. Lake Lake, east-central Honshu, Japan. Situ¬ ated at an elevation of 4,163 ft (1,269 m), it is a resort site noted for its shrines, yachting, trout fishing, and skiing. Volcanic Mount Nantai tow¬ ers to 8,169 ft (2,490 m) above the lake’s northern shore; lower moun¬ tains surround most of the irregular 13-mi (21-km) shoreline.
chyme Vklm\ Thick semifluid mass of partly digested food and secre¬ tions, formed in the stomach and intestines during digestion. Its compo¬ sition changes as various digestive juices and cellular debris and other waste products are added, and water and nutrients are absorbed from it during its passage through the digestive tract, at the end of which it is stored for excretion.
CIA See Central Intelligence Agency
Ciano Vcha-no\, Galeazzo, count di Cortellazzo (b. March 18, 1903, Livorno, Italy—d. Jan. 11, 1944, Verona) Italian politician. He took part in the fascists’ March on Rome and later entered the diplomatic corps. After marrying Benito Mussolini’s daughter Edda in 1930, he became min¬ ister of foreign affairs (1936) and initiated the Rome-Berlin Axis that helped bring Italy into World War II. After several Axis defeats in 1942, he advocated a separate peace with the Allies. Mussolini dismissed his cabinet (1943), but Ciano and other leading fascists forced Mussolini’s resignation. Later, on Mussolini’s orders, Ciano was tried for treason and executed.
Ciaran of Clonmacnoise \ , kir-9n... 1 klan-mok- , n6iz\, Saint or Kie- ran the Younger (b. c. 516, Ireland—d. c. 549, Clonmacnoise; feast day September 9) Irish abbot, one of the founders of monasticism in Ire¬ land. Ciaran was educated with St. Columba at the monastery of Clonard and then lived on the island of Aranmore as a disciple of St. Enda. He traveled to central Ireland and settled with eight companions at Clonmac¬ noise, where he founded an abbey (548) that later won renown as a cen¬ ter of medieval learning. Ciaran’s abbey was so influential that more than half the monasteries in Ireland followed its severely ascetic rule. There is an annual pilgrimage to Clonmacnoise on his feast day.