ant flavour and good burning properties. Cigars are bigger than cigarettes, and the odour and smoke they produce are stronger. Cigars were being smoked by Maya Indians by the 10th century; they were reported back to Spain by Christopher Columbus and other explorers and became popu¬ lar there long before they spread to other European countries.
cigarette Paper-wrapped roll of finely cut tobacco for smoking. Ciga¬ rette tobacco is usually milder than cigar tobacco. The Aztecs and other New World peoples smoked tobacco in hollow reeds, in canes, or wrapped in leaves, but it was in pipes and as cigars (cut tobacco wrapped in a tobacco leaf) that the Europeans first smoked tobacco. Early in the 16th century beggars in Sevilla, Spain, began picking up discarded cigar butts and wrapping them in scraps of paper to smoke, creating the first Euro¬ pean cigarettes. In the late 18th century cigarettes acquired respectabil¬ ity, and in the 19th century their use spread throughout Europe. After World War I smoking cigarettes became generally respectable for women and consequently increased markedly. In the 1950s and ’60s the health hazards associated with smoking (including lung cancer and heart disease) became widely known, and some countries launched campaigns against smoking. Declines in smoking in those countries have been offset by vastly increased numbers of smokers in developing nations.
cilantro See coriander
Cilicia \s3-Ti-sho\ Ancient district, southern Anatolia. The district was located along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea south of the Taurus Mountains. In ancient times it comprised the only land route from Ana¬ tolia to Syria, making it a prized territory. Controlled by the Hittites (14th—13th century bc), the Assyrians (8th century), and the Persian Achaemenids (6th—4th century), it later came under Macedonian and Seleucid rule. In the 1st century bc it became a Roman province (see Roman Republic and Empire). The apostle Paul visited the district, which has early Christian monuments. Muslim Arabs occupied it (7th-10th century ad), at the end of which time it was reconquered by Byzantine Empire. It was absorbed by the Ottoman Empire in 1515 and after 1921 became part of the Republic of Turkey.
Cilician Gates See Taurus Mtns.
cilium Vsi-le-smV Short, eyelashlike filament that is numerous on tissue cells of most animals. Capable of beating in unison, cilia perform a vari¬ ety of functions, including providing the means of locomotion for some protozoans, moving mammalian ova (eggs) through oviducts, generating water currents to carry food and oxygen past the gills of clams, and clean¬ ing debris from mammalian respiratory systems. Like a flagellum, a cil¬ ium has a central core consisting of two central microtubules surrounded by an outer ring of nine double fibres. Ciliary outgrowth is controlled by the basal body, located just inside the cell surface at the base of the cil¬ ium. Beneath the surface of some cells is a network of microtubular bundles that may coordinate ciliary beating.
Cimabue \,che-m3-'bu-a\ orig. Benciviene di Pepo (b. before 1251—d. 1302) Florentine painter and mosaicist. He is documented as a master painter in Rome in 1272. It is assumed that he was apprenticed to an Italo-Byzantine painter, since he was strongly influenced by the Greek Byzantine style. Though a number of works are attributed to him, the only one dated is the mosaic of St. John the Evangelist (1301-02) in Pisa Cathedral. He was the outstanding master of his generation and began the movement toward greater realism that culminated in the Renaissance. His style influenced Giotto and Duccio. Cimabue’s character may be reflected in his name, which can best be translated as “bullheaded.”
Cimarosa \,che-ma-'r6-za\, Domenico (b. Dec. 17, 1749, Aversa, Kingdom of Naples—d. Jan. 11,1801, Venice) Italian opera composer. Son of a stonemason, he studied at the Naples Conservatory. His first opera was produced in 1772, and by the mid-1780s he was internationally known. A short engagement as kapellmeister at the Viennese court resulted in the famous comic opera II matrimonio segreto (1792). In 1796 he became organist in the royal chapel of Naples. He wrote some 75 operas, remark¬ able for their apt characterizations and abundant comic life. He wrote many choral works, including the cantata II maestro di cappella, a popular satire on contemporary operatic rehearsal methods. Among his instrumental works, which, like his operas, have been successfully revived, are many sparkling harpsichord sonatas and a concerto for two flutes.
Cimarron Vsi-mo-.ron, , si-m9-,ran\ River River, southwestern U.S. Rising in northeastern New Mexico, it flows 698 mi (1,123 km) to enter the Arkansas River near Tulsa, Okla. Traversing the northern Oklahoma
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Cimmerian ► circadian rhythm I 407
Panhandle, southeastern Colorado, and southwestern Kansas, the river¬ bed in this area is often dry and is known as the Dry Cimarron. The Santa Fe Trail coursed along its valley for 100 mi (160 km), and travelers knew the Oklahoma Panhandle as the “Cimarron Cutoff.”
Cimmerian \s3-'mir-e-9n\ Any member of an ancient people living north of the Caucasus and the Sea of Azov. Their origins are obscure; lin¬ guistically they are usually regarded as Thracian or Iranian. Driven by the Scythians out of southern Russia and over the Caucasus, they entered Ana¬ tolia toward the end of the 8th century bc. In 696-695 bc they conquered Phrygia. They reached the summit of their power in 652 after taking Sar¬ dis, capital of Lydia. Their decline soon began, and their final defeat may be dated from 637 or 626, when they were routed by Alyattes of Lydia.
Cimon YsI-monV (b. c. 510—d. c. 451 bc, Cyprus) Athenian statesman and general. He was the son of Miltiades. A conservative, he promoted Sparta and opposed Pericles. After helping defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis (480), he was elected strategus every year until 461. As com¬ mander of the Delian League, he cleared the Persians from the eastern Mediterranean and helped to lay the groundwork for the Athenian empire. In 461 he was accused by Pericles of collaborating with Macedonia and Sparta and was exiled for 10 years. He died leading a naval expedition against Persia.
cinchona Vsiq-'ko-ns, sin-'ch6-no\ Any of about 40 species, mostly trees, that make up the genus Cinchona in the madder family. Cinchona is native to the Andes Mountains. Four species have been cultivated in tropical regions for hundreds of years, mostly in Java and, since World War II, in Africa. The bark is processed to obtain various alkaloids. The most significant are quinine, used to treat malaria, and quinidine, used mainly for cardiac rhyth¬ mic disorders. High demand for quinine among Europeans living in the tropics led naturalists to smuggle cinchona seeds from South America to plantations in Asia in the mid 1800s and to conduct intensive research lead¬ ing to new high-yield strains and improved processing methods.
Cincinnati City (pop., 2000: 331,285), Ohio, U.S. Situated on the Ohio River across from Kentucky, it was first settled in 1788; the area was renamed in 1790 to honour the Society of the Cincinnati. A river port after 1811, it grew in importance with the opening of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1832. Its manufactures include transportation equipment and building materials, and it is a major inland coal port. A cultural centre, it has an orchestra, opera and ballet companies, and several notable museums. It is the seat of the University of Cincinnati (1819), the birthplace of Wil¬ liam Howard Taft (now a national historical site), and the site of the Har¬ riet Beecher Stowe House, where she lived briefly and frequently visited her family during her tenure in the city (1832-50).
Cincinnati, Society of the Hereditary, military, and patriotic organi¬ zation formed in 1783 by officers who had served in the American Revo¬ lution. The group’s aims were to promote union, maintain war-forged friendships, and help members in need. Membership was offered to all officers and their eldest male descendants. George Washington was its first president. The group took its name from the Roman citizen-soldier Cin- cinnatus. The city of Cincinnati was named in its honour in 1790.