Cistercian \sis-'t3r-sh3n\ or White Monk or Bernardine Member of a Roman Catholic monastic order founded by St. Stephen Harding (1098) at Citeaux (Latin, Cistercium), Burgundy, by Benedictines dissatis¬ fied with their abbey’s laxity. Cistercians were severely ascetic, rejected feudal revenues, and engaged in manual labor. Uniform rules applied to all houses, and all abbots were to meet annually at Citeaux. St. Bernard de Clairvaux founded 68 abbeys in his lifetime. Discipline declined as the order grew, and Cistercians disappeared from northern Europe after the Reformation. The order underwent reforms in the 16th-17th century; members of the reformed order are popularly known as Trappists after the abbey of La Trapp. Until the 1960s, they slept, ate, and worked in per¬ petual silence. The original order, which underwent more moderate reforms, also survives.
Citation (foaled 1945) U.S. Thoroughbred racehorse. In four seasons he won 32 of 45 races, finished second in ten, and third in two. He won the 1948 Triple Crown, and became the first horse to win $1 million. He set a world record in 1950 by running a mile in 1:33 3/5.
Citigroup U.S. holding company formed in 1998 from the merger of Cit¬ icorp (itself a holding company incorporated in 1967) and Travelers Group, Inc. The $70 billion merger included one of the largest U.S. invest¬ ment banks, Salomon Smith Barney Inc., and aimed at creating a global retail financial-services business. Citicorp, whose lineage can be traced to the First Bank of the United States, was noteworthy for its pioneering installation of automated teller machines throughout its branch offices in the 1970s. Before its merger with Travelers Group, Inc., Citicorp was the largest U.S. bank and one of the largest financial companies in the world, with about 3,000 branch offices worldwide.
Citizen Genet Affair \zho-'ne\ Incident precipitated by the French diplomat Citizen Edmond C. Genet (1763-1834), who was sent to the U.S. in 1793 by the French government to gain support for France’s war with Britain and Spain. In South Carolina Genet organized privateers to prey on British commerce and expeditions to attack Spanish and British territories. Pres. George Washington considered Genet’s activities a vio¬
lation of U.S. neutrality and demanded his recall. Facing possible death at the hands of the new regime in France, he was allowed to remain in the U.S.
citizenship Relationship between an individual and a state in which the individual owes allegiance to the state and in turn is entitled to its pro¬ tection. In general, full political rights, including the right to vote and to hold public office, are predicated on citizenship. Citizenship entails obli¬ gations, usually including allegiance, payment of taxes, and military ser¬ vice. The concept arose in ancient Greece, where citizenship was granted only to property owners. The Romans initially used it as a privilege to be conferred upon or withheld from conquered peoples, but it was granted to all the empire’s free inhabitants in ad 212. The concept disappeared in Europe during the feudal era but was revived in the Renaissance. Citi¬ zenship may normally be gained by birth within a certain territory, descent from a parent who is a citizen, marriage to a citizen, or naturalization. See also NATIONALITY.
Citlaltepetl Vse-.tlal-'ta-.pe-FL or Orizaba \,6-re-'sa-ba\ Volcano, south-central Mexico. Reaching 18,406 ft (5,610 m) high, its symmetri¬ cal, snowcapped cone is the highest point in Mexico and the third high¬ est peak in North America. The volcano has been dormant since 1687.
citric acid Colourless, crystalline organic compound (C 6 H 8 0 7 ), one of the carboxylic acids. It is present in almost all plants (especially citrus fruits) and in many animal tissues and fluids. It is one of a series of compounds involved in the physiological oxidation (see oxidation-reduction) of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water (see tricarboxylic acid cycle). It has a characteristic sharply sour taste and is used in many foods, confections, and soft drinks. It is added to certain foods to improve their stability in metal containers. Industrially, it is used as a water condi¬ tioner, cleaning and polishing agent, and chemical intermediate.
citric-acid cycle See tricarboxylic acid cycle
citrine \si-'tren\ Transparent, coarse-grained variety of the silica mineral quartz. Citrine is a semiprecious gem that is valued for its yellow to brownish colour and its resemblance to the rarer topaz. Natural citrine is rarer than amethyst or smoky quartz, both of which are often heated to change their natural colour to that of citrine. Citrine is often marketed under various names that confuse it with topaz to inflate its price; it may be distinguished from topaz by its inferior hardness. It occurs mainly in Brazil, Uruguay, the Ural Mountains, Scotland, and North Carolina.
Citroen \si-tro-'en\ Historic French automobile manufacturer. It was founded by Andre-Gustave Citroen (1878-1935), an engineer and indus¬ trialist who initially prospered by selling munitions in World War I. He converted his arms factory to produce small, inexpensive automobiles, introducing mass-production methods to the French auto industry. The first Citroen car appeared in 1919. The 1976 acquisition of Citroen by rival French automaker Peugeot led to the creation of PSA Peugeot Cit¬ roen SA, which was a leading European manufacturer of trucks and auto¬ mobiles.
citron Small evergreen tree or shrub (Citrus medico). A member of the rue family, citron is cultivated in Mediterranean countries and the West Indies. It has irregular, spreading, spiny branches and large, pale green, broadly oblong leaves. The flowers of the acidic varieties (e.g., the Dia¬ mante) are purple on the outside and white on the inside; those of sweet varieties (e.g., the Corsican) are creamy white. The oval or oblong fruit yields firm pulp, either acidic or sweet, that is used only for by-products. The thick peel is cured in brine, candied, and sold as a confection. The fruit of the Etrog variety is used in Jewish religious rites.
citrus Any of the plants that make up the genus Citrus, in the rue family, that yield pulpy fruits covered with fairly thick skins. The genus includes the lemon, lime, sweet and sour oranges, tangerine, grapefruit, citron, and shaddock (C. maxima, or C. grandis', also called pomelo).
citrus family See rue family
city Relatively permanent and highly organized centre of population, of greater size or importance than a town or village. The first cities appeared in Neolithic times when the development of agricultural techniques assured surplus crop yields large enough to sustain a permanent popula¬ tion. Ancient Greece saw the creation of the city-state, a form also impor¬ tant in the emergence of the Roman empire as well as the medieval Italian trading centers of Venice, Genoa, and Florence. After the Middle Ages, cities came increasingly under the political control of centralized govem-
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
410 I city government ► civil law
ment and served the interests of the nation-state. The Industrial Revolution further transformed city life, as factory cities blossomed rapidly in England, northwestern Europe, and the northeastern U.S. By the mid-20th century, 30-60% of a country’s population might be living in its major urban centers. With the rise of the automobile came the growth of sub¬ urbs and urban sprawl, as factories, offices, and residences erected in ear¬ lier periods became aged and obsolete. Today many cities suffer from lack of adequate housing, sanitation, recreational space, and transportation facilities, and face problems of inner-city decay or burgeoning shanty¬ towns. Local governments have sought to alleviate these problems through URBAN PLANNING.
city government Set of governmental institutions that serve an urban area or urban municipality. All cities derive their existence from a larger political entity, either a state or national government. City government generally includes an executive (a mayor or manager) and a legislature (a council or commission), both of which may be subject to popular elec¬ tion. Their most important functions are the provision of services, includ¬ ing public safety, health care, education, recreation, housing, utilities, transportation, and cultural facilities. Revenues come from local taxes and fees as well as grants and subsidies from its state or national government.