Clark, Tom orig. Thomas Campbell (b. Sept. 23, 1899, Dallas, Texas, U.S.—d. June 13, 1977, New York, N.Y.) U.S. jurist. He studied law at the University of Texas and entered private practice in Dallas. As a civil district attorney, he became involved in Democratic Party politics. At the U.S. Justice Department (1937-45), he worked primarily on anti¬ trust and war-fraud cases. As U.S. attorney general (1945) he gained a reputation for his vigorous antisubversive programs and his efforts to broaden the powers of Federal Bureau of Investigation. Appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States (1949), he retained his strong views on subversive activities but was also a frequent supporter of civil liberties. He resigned in 1967 when his son, Ramsey Clark (b. 1927), was appointed U.S. attorney general.
Clark, William (b. Aug. 1, 1770, Caroline county, Va.—d. Sept. 1, 1838, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.) U.S. explorer and soldier. The brother of George Rogers Clark, he joined the army and participated in Indian cam¬ paigns under Anthony Wayne. After resigning his commission, he was recruited by his former army friend Meriwether Lewis to help lead the first overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. Proving a daring and resourceful leader, he is credited with rescuing the famed Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-06) from disaster on more than one occasion. He also served as mapmaker and artist, portraying with meticulous detail animal life observed en route. Later, as governor of the Missouri Territory (1813— 21), he became known for his effective diplomacy with the Indians.
Clark Fork River, Montana and Idaho, U.S. Rising near Butte, Mont., it flows in an irregular course for about 300 mi (480 km) to enter Pend Oreille Lake in northern Idaho. Glacier National Park, wildlife preserves, and national forests are in the adjacent mountains, which are noted for their spectacular scenery.
Clarke, Arthur C(harles) (b. Dec. 16, 1917, Minehead, Somerset, Eng.) British science-fiction writer. He first published stories while in the Royal Air Force and, after earning a degree in physics and mathematics, wrote such novels as Childhood’s End (1953), Earthlight (1955), Ren¬ dezvous with Rama (1973), and The Fountains of Paradise (1979). He collaborated with Stanley Kubrick in making 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968, film and novel). Some of Clarke’s ideas have proved remarkably pre¬ scient. Since the 1950s he has lived in Sri Lanka. In 1997 he published 3001: The Final Odyssey. He was knighted in 2000.
class, social Group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status. The term was first widely used in the early 19th century, following the industrial and political revolutions of the late 18th century. The most influential early theory of class was that of Karl Marx, who focused on how one class controls and directs the process of pro¬ duction while other classes are the direct producers and the providers of services to the dominant class. The relations between the classes were
Helen Clark, 2005.
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414 I class action ► Claudius
thus seen as antagonistic. Max Weber emphasized the importance of politi¬ cal power and social status or prestige in maintaining class distinctions. Despite controversies over the theory of class, there is general agreement on the characteristics of the classes in modern capitalist societies. In many cases the upper class has been distinguished by the possession of largely inherited wealth, while the working class has consisted mostly of manual labourers and semiskilled or unskilled workers, often in service indus¬ tries, who earn moderate or low wages and have little access to inherited wealth. The middle class includes the middle and upper levels of clerical workers, those engaged in technical and professional occupations, super¬ visors and managers, and such self-employed workers as small-scale shopkeepers, businesspeople, and farmers. There is also often an urban substratum of permanently jobless and underemployed workers termed the “underclass.” See also bourgeoisie.
class action In law, an action in which a representative plaintiff sues or a representative defendant is sued on behalf of a class of plaintiffs or defendants who have the same interests in the litigation as their repre¬ sentative and whose rights or liabilities can be better determined as a group than in a series of individual suits. Class-action suits that received national attention in the U.S. include a suit brought against manufactur¬ ers of Agent Orange by Vietnam veterans exposed to the herbicide (settled in 1984) and a suit concerning the effects of passive smoking brought against tobacco firms (settled in 1997).
Classical architecture Architecture of ancient Greece and Rome, especially from the 5 th century bc in Greece to the 3rd century ad in Rome, that emphasized the column and pediment. Greek architecture was based chiefly on the post-and-beam system, with columns carrying the load. Timber construction was superseded by construction in marble and stone. The column, a unit human in scale, was used as a module for all of a tem¬ ple’s proportions. The Doric order, probably the earliest, remained the favorite of the Greek mainland and western colonies. The Ionic order developed in eastern Greece; on the mainland, it was used chiefly for smaller temples and interiors. The greatest Greek architectural achieve¬ ment was the Athens acropolis. By the late 5th century bc, the orders were applied to such structures as stoas and theaters. The Hellenistic Age pro¬ duced more elaborate and richly decorated architecture, with often colos¬ sal buildings. Many of the great buildings were secular rather than religious, and the Ionic and especially the newer Corinthian orders were widely used. The Romans used the Greek orders and added two new ones (Tuscan and Composite); the Corinthian was by far the most popular. Roman architects used columns not only as functional bearing elements, but also as applied (engaged) decoration. Though rigidly adhering to sym¬ metry, the Romans used a variety of spatial forms. Whereas Greek temples were isolated and almost always faced east-west, Roman temples were oriented with respect to other buildings. Roman columns carried arches as well as entablatures, permitting greater spatial freedom. The discovery of concrete enormously facilitated construction using the arch, vault, and dome, as in the Pantheon. Other public buildings included basilicas, baths (see thermae), amphitheaters, and triumphal arches. Classical architecture may also refer to architecture of later periods that employs Greek or Roman forms.
classical economics School of economic thought largely centred in Britain that originated with Adam Smith and reached maturity in the works of David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill. The theories of the classical school were mainly concerned with the dynamics of economic growth. Reacting against mercantilism, classical economics emphasized economic freedom. It stressed ideas such as laissez-faire and free competition. Many of the fundamental principles of classical economics were set forth in Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776), in which he argued that a nation’s wealth was greatest when its citizens pursued their own self-interest. Neoclassical economists such as Alfred Marshall showed that the forces of supply and demand would ration economic resources to their most effective uses. Smith’s ideas were elaborated and refined by Ricardo, who formulated the principle that the price of goods produced and sold under competitive conditions tends to be proportionate to the labour costs incurred in pro¬ ducing them. Mill’s Principles of Political Economy (1848) gave the ideas greater currency by relating them to contemporary social conditions. Among those who have modified classical economics to reach very dif¬ ferent conclusions are Karl AAarx and John Maynard Keynes.