Cleveland City (pop., 2000: 478,403), northeastern Ohio, U.S. Located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, it is Ohio’s second largest city. Ini¬ tially the site of French and Indian trading posts, it took its name from Moses Cleaveland, who surveyed the area in 1796. It expanded follow¬ ing the opening of the Erie Canal and the arrival of the railroad in 1851. The American Civil War provided the stimulus for iron and steel process¬ ing and oil refining (John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil there), and heavy industry is still basic to its economy. More than 400 medical and industrial research centres and numerous educational institutions are in the area. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, designed by I.M. Pei, opened in 1995.
March 18, 1837, Caldwell, N.J.,
Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover (b
U.S.—d. June 24, 1908, Princeton)
22nd and 24th president of the U.S.
(1885-89, 1893-97). From 1859 he practiced law in Buffalo, N.Y., where he entered Democratic Party politics.
As mayor of Buffalo (1881-82), he was known as a foe of corruption. As governor of New York (1883-85), his independence earned him the hostility of Tammany Hall. Elected president in 1884, he supported civil- service reform and opposed high tar¬ iffs. Although he was narrowly defeated by Benjamin Harrison in 1888, he was reelected by a huge popular plurality in 1892. In 1893 he strongly urged Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, which he blamed for the coun¬ try’s severe economic depression.
Despite the repeal of the act, the
depression continued, resulting in the Pullman Strike in 1894. An isolation¬ ist, Cleveland opposed territorial expansion. In 1895 he invoked the Mon¬ roe Doctrine in the border dispute between Britain and Venezuela. By 1896 supporters of the Free Silver Movement controlled the Democratic Party, which nominated William Jennings Bryan instead of Cleveland for presi¬ dent. He retired to New Jersey, where he lectured at Princeton University.
Grover Cleveland
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.
Cliburn Vkll-.bornV Van orig. Harvey Lavan Cliburn, Jr. (b. July 12, 1934, Shreveport, La., U.S.) U.S. pianist. He was taught piano by his mother in his early years. After study with Rosina Lhevinne (1880-1976) at the Juilliard School, he made his debut with the New York Philhar¬ monic. In 1958 he became a national sensation as the first American to win the Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow. In 1962 he established the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition in Fort Worth, Texas. Pos¬ sessed of an impressive technique, he limited himself to the Romantic repertoire and spent many years away from the concert stage.
click In phonetics, a suction sound made in the mouth. Click sounds occur in various African languages and are often used as interjections in other languages—for example, the sound of disapproval represented in
English by tsk, tsk. Clicks are a regular part of the consonant system in the Khoisan languages and in Bantu languages such as Xhosa and Zulu that have been strongly influenced by Khoisan.
client-centered therapy See nondirective psychotherapy
client-server architecture Architecture of a computer network in which many clients (remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer). Client computers provide an inter¬ face to allow a computer user to request services of the server and to dis¬ play the results the server returns. Servers wait for requests to arrive from clients and then respond to them. Ideally, a server provides a standard¬ ized transparent interface to clients so that clients need not be aware of the specifics of the system (i.e., the hardware and software) that is pro¬ viding the service. Today clients are often situated at workstations or on personal computers, while servers are located elsewhere on the network, usually on more powerful machines. This computing model is especially effective when clients and the server each have distinct tasks that they routinely perform. In hospital data processing, for example, a client com¬ puter can be running an application program for entering patient infor¬ mation while the server computer is running another program that manages the database in which the information is permanently stored. Many clients can access the server’s information simultaneously, and, at the same time, a client computer can perform other tasks, such as send¬ ing e-mail. Because both client and server computers are considered intel¬ ligent devices, the client-server model is completely different from the old “mainframe” model, which utilized a centralized mainframe computer that performed all the tasks for its associated “dumb” terminals.
cliff dwelling Prehistoric, usually multistoried house of the ancestors of present-day Pueblo Indians, built from c. 1000 along the sides or under the overhangs of cliffs. The use of hand-hewn stone building blocks and adobe mortar in these communal dwellings was unexcelled even in later times. Rooms on upper levels could be entered either by doorways from adjoining rooms or by ladders through holes in the ceilings; ground-floor rooms could be entered only through the ceiling. It is thought that the cliff dwellings were built as a defense against invading Navajo and Apache tribes. They were deserted by the inhabitants around the end of the 13th century. Many ruins remain, including notable ones at Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Mesa Verde National Park, and Montezuma Castle National Monument.
Clift, (Edward) Montgomery (b. Oct. 17, 1920, Omaha, Neb., U.S.—d. July 23, 1966, New York, N.Y.) U.S. actor. He acted on Broad¬ way and was a founding member of the Actors Studio (1947). He made his film debut in The Search (1948) and became a star with Red River (1948). Noted for his serious, sensitive roles, he portrayed troubled heroes in films such as A Place in the Sun (1951), From Here to Eternity (1953), The Young Lions (1958), Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), and Freud (1962). Scarred by a car crash in 1956, he became addicted to drugs and alcohol and died of a heart attack at 45.
climate Condition of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period of time (from one month to many millions of years, but generally 30 years). Climate is the sum of atmospheric elements (and their varia¬ tions): solar radiation, temperature, humidity, clouds and precipitation (type, frequency, and amount), atmospheric pressure, and wind (speed and direction). To the nonspecialist, climate means expected or habitual weather at a particular place and time of year. To the specialist, climate also denotes the degree of variability of weather, and it includes not only the atmosphere but also the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and such extraterrestrial factors as the sun. See also urban climate.
climatic adaptation In physical anthropology, the genetic adaptation of human beings to different environmental conditions, such as extreme cold, humid heat, desert habitat, and high altitudes. Extreme cold favours short, round bodies with short arms and legs, flat faces with fat pads over the sinuses, narrow noses, and a heavy layer of body fat. These adapta¬ tions provide minimum surface area in relation to body mass for mini¬ mum heat loss and protect the lungs and base of the brain against cold air in the nasal passages. In conditions of humid heat, where body heat must be dissipated, selection favours tall and thin bodies with maximum surface area for heat radiation. A wide nose prevents warming of the air in the nasal passages, and dark skin protects against harmful solar radia¬ tion. The desert-adapted person must compensate for water loss through sweating. A thin but not tall body minimizes both water needs and water loss; skin pigmentation is moderate, since extreme pigmentation is good