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climatology ► ditoridectomy I 419
protection from the sun but allows absorption of heat from direct sun¬ light, which must be lost by sweating. Adaptation to night cold, often part of a desert environment, provides increased metabolic activity to warm the body during sleep. High altitudes demand, in addition to cold adap¬ tation, adaptation for low air pressure and the consequent low oxygen, usually by an increase in lung tissue. See also acclimatization; race.
climatology Branch of atmospheric science concerned with describing climate and analyzing the causes and practical consequences of climatic differences and changes. Climatology treats the same atmospheric pro¬ cesses as meteorology, but it also seeks to identify slower-acting influ¬ ences and longer-term changes, including the circulation of the oceans, the concentrations of atmospheric gases, and the small but measurable variations in the intensity of solar radiation.
Cline, Patsy orig. Virginia Patterson Hensley (b. Sept. 8, 1932, Winchester, Va., U.S.—d. March 5, 1963, near Camden, Tenn.) U.S. singer. Cline sang with country music groups as a teenager. She began recording in the mid-1950s and won first place on Arthur Godfrey’s tele¬ vision show with “Walking After Midnight” (1957), a hit that made her the first female country singer to cross over into pop music. In 1960 she joined the Grand Ole Opry. After recovering from injuries sustained in a car crash, she returned in 1962 with hits such as “I Fall to Pieces” and “Crazy.” She was killed in an airplane crash.
clinical psychology Branch of psychology concerned with the diag¬ nosis and treatment of mental disorders. Clinical psychologists evaluate patients through interviews, observation, and psychological tests, and they apply current research findings and methodologies in making diagnoses and assigning treatments. Most clinical psychologists hold an academic degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) rather than a medical degree (M.D.); they may provide psychotherapy but cannot prescribe medications. Most practiction- ers work in hospitals or clinics or in private practice, often in tandem with psychiatrists and social workers, treating mentally or physically disabled patients, prison inmates, drug and alcohol abusers, and geriatric patients, among others. See also psychiatry; social work.
Clinton, Bill in full William Jefferson Clinton orig. William Jefferson Blythe III (b. Aug. 19, 1946, Hope, Ark., U.S.) 42nd presi¬ dent of the U.S. (1993-2001). Born shortly after his father’s death in a car crash, he later took the last name of his mother’s second husband, Roger Clinton. He attended Georgetown University, the University of Oxford (as a Rhodes Scholar), and Yale Law School, then taught law at the University of Arkansas. He served as state attorney general (1977-79) and served several terms as governor (1979-81, 1983-92), during which he reformed Arkansas’s educational system and encouraged the growth of industry through favourable tax policies. In 1992 he won the Democratic Party’s presidential nomination despite charges of personal impropriety; in the subsequent election he defeated the incumbent. Republican George Bush, and independent candidate H. Ross Perot. As president, Clinton obtained Senate ratification of the NAFTA accord in 1993. Along with his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, he devised a plan to overhaul the U.S. health care system, but it was rejected by Congress. He committed U.S. forces to a peacekeeping initiative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1994 the Democrats lost control of Congress for the first time since 1954. Clinton responded by offering a deficit-reduction plan while opposing efforts to slow government spending on social programs. He defeated Robert Dole to win reelection in 1996. In 1997 he helped broker a peace agreement in Northern Ireland. He faced renewed charges of personal impropriety, this time involving his relationship with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky; he denied the charges before a grand jury but ultimately acknowledged “improper relations” in a televised address. In 1998 Clin¬ ton became only the second president in history to be impeached. Charged with perjury and obstruction of justice, he was acquitted by the Senate in 1999. His two terms saw sustained economic growth and successive bud¬ get surpluses, the first in three decades.
Clinton, DeWitt (b. March 2, 1769, Little Britain, N.Y.—d. Feb. 11, 1828, Albany, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. politician. A nephew of George Clinton, he practiced law and served as state senator (1798-1802, 1806-11), U.S. senator (1802-03), mayor of New York City (1803-15 except for two annual terms), lieutenant governor (1811-13), and governor (1817-23, 1825-28). He proposed the idea of a canal across New York state, and he oversaw the construction of Erie Canal from 1816 until its opening in 1825. The canal assured the 19th-century development of New York City as the major port of trade with the Midwest.
Clinton, George (b. July 26, 1739, Little Britain, N.Y.—d. April 20, 1812, Washington, D.C., U.S.) U.S. politician, fourth vice president of the U.S. (1805-12). A veteran of the French and Indian War, he was a leading member of the New York assembly (1768-75) and a delegate to the Continental Congress (1775). As governor of New York (1777-95, 1801-04), he was a forceful leader and able administrator; he led the opposition to the state’s adoption of the U.S. Constitution. A supporter of Thomas Jefferson, he was twice elected vice president (with Jefferson and James Madison); he died in office.
Clinton, Hillary Rodham orig. Hillary Diane Rodham (b. Oct. 26, 1947, Chicago, HI., U.S.) U.S. lawyer, first lady, and politician. She attended Wellesley College and Yale Law School, from which she gradu¬ ated first in her class. Her early professional interests focused on family law and children’s rights. In 1975 she married her Yale classmate Bill Clinton, and she became first lady of Arkansas on his election as gover¬ nor in 1979. She was twice named one of America’s 100 most influential lawyers by the National Law Journal. When her husband became presi¬ dent (1993), she wielded power and influence almost unprecedented for a first lady. As head of the Task Force on National Health Care Reform, she proposed the first national health-care program in the U.S. but saw the initiative defeated. In 2000 she was elected to the U.S. Senate from New York, thereby becoming the first wife of a president to win elective office.
Clinton, Sir Henry (b. April 16?, 1730?—d. Dec. 23, 1795, Cornwall, Eng.) British commander in chief during the American Revolution. Com¬ missioned in the British army in 1751, he went to North America in 1775 as second in command to William Howe. He commanded British troops to victories in New York and then succeeded to the supreme command on Howe’s retirement in 1778. He led an offensive in the Carolinas in 1780 and effected the fall of Charleston. On his return to New York, he left Charles Cornwallis in charge of subsequent operations, which ulti¬ mately resulted in the British surrender after the Siege of Yorktown. He resigned in 1781 and returned to England, where he found himself blamed for the Yorktown defeat.
cliometrics V.kll-o-'me-triksV Application of economic theory and sta¬ tistical analysis to the study of history, developed by Robert W. Fogel (b. 1926) and Douglass C. North (b. 1920), who were awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1993 for their work. In Time on the Cross (1974), Fogel used statistical analysis to examine the relationship between the politics of American slavery and its profitability. North studied the link between a market economy and legal and social institutions such as prop¬ erty rights in such works as Structure and Change in Economic History (1981). See also econometrics.
clipper ship Classic sailing ship of beauty, grace, and speed. Apparently originating with the small, swift coastal packet known as the Balti¬ more clipper, the true clipper evolved first in the U.S. (c. 1833) and later in Britain. It was a long, slim, graceful vessel with a projecting bow, a streamlined hull, and an exceptionally large spread of sail on three tall masts. Clippers carried tea from China and goldminers to Cali¬ fornia. Famous clippers included the American Flying Cloud and the Brit¬ ish Cutty Sark. Though much faster than the early steamships (already in use when the clipper appeared), they were eventually outrun by improved steamship models and largely dis¬ appeared from commercial use in the 1870s.