commercial law See business law
Commercial Revolution Great increase in commerce in Europe that began in the late Middle Ages. It received stimulus from the voyages of exploration undertaken by England, Spain, and other nations to Africa, Asia, and the New World. Among the features associated with it were a surge in overseas trade, the appearance of the chartered company, accep¬ tance of the principles of mercantilism, the creation of a money economy, increased economic specialization, and the establishment of such new institutions as the state bank, the bourse, and the futures market. The Commercial Revolution helped set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.
Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights Arabic Lajnat al-Difa' ‘an al-Huquq al-Shar'iyyah Sunnite Muslim group opposed to the ruling Saud dynasty in Saudi Arabia. The group was founded in 1992 and consists largely of academics and lower-level Mus¬ lim clergy. It considers itself a pressure group for peaceful reform and for improving human rights in Saudi Arabia but also agitates against what it perceives as the political corruption of the Saudi government and ruling family. Its leader is a former physics professor, Muhammad ibn al-Masa c arI. In 1994, after experiencing government repression, the group moved its headquarters to London. Despite its claim to advocate peace¬ ful change, the group has been accused of aiding Islamic militants seek¬ ing to overthrow the Saudi government.
Committee of Public Safety Political body of the French Revolution that controlled France during the Reign of Terror. It was set up in April 1793 to defend France against its enemies, foreign and domestic. At first it was dominated by Georges Danton and his followers, but they were soon replaced by the radical Jacobins, including Maximilien Robespierre. Harsh measures were taken against alleged enemies of the Revolution, the economy was placed on a wartime basis, and mass conscription was undertaken. Dissension within the committee contributed to the downfall of Robespierre in July 1794, after which it declined in importance.
Committees of Correspondence Groups appointed by the legis¬ latures of all 13 American colonies to provide a means of intercolonial communication. The first standing group was formed by Samuel Adams in Boston (1772), and within three months 80 others were formed in Mas¬ sachusetts. In 1773 Virginia organized a committee with 11 members, including Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry. The committees were instru¬ mental in promoting colonial unity and in summoning the First Conti¬ nental Congress in 1774.
commode Piece of furniture resembling the English chest of drawers, used in France from the late 17th century. Most had marble tops, and some
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commodity exchange ► commune I 439
were fitted with pairs of doors. Andre-Charles Boulle was among the first to make commodes, which were heavy in form and elaborately decorated in marquetry veneers and ormolu. In the Louis XV period (1715-74), extravagant curves and flamboyant surface ornament became fashionable. The 19th-century commode lost its decorative features and became purely functional.
commodity exchange Organized market for the purchase and sale of enforceable contracts to deliver a commodity (such as wheat, gold, or cotton) or a financial instrument (such as U.S. treasury bills) at some future date. Such contracts are known as futures and are bought and sold in a competitive auction process on commodity exchanges (also called futures markets). The largest futures and futures-options exchange is the Chicago Board of Trade.
Commodus in full Caesar Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Augustus orig.
Lucius Aelius Aurelius Com¬ modus (b. Aug. 31, 161, Lanu- vium, Latium—d. Dec. 31, 192)
Roman emperor (ad 177-92). He ruled with his father, Marcus Aure¬ lius, until the latter’s death in 180; recalled from the frontier, Commo¬ dus plunged into a life of dissipation in Rome. After his sister tried to have him killed (182), he executed the senators involved and began ruling capriciously. His brutality stirred unrest that ended years of Roman stability and prosperity. He renamed Rome Colonia Commodiana (“Colony of Commodus”). Physi¬ cally impressive, he claimed he was Hercules and performed as a gladia¬ tor. His mistress and advisers had him strangled, ending the Antonine dynasty.
common cold See common cold
common fox See red fox common gallinule See moorhen
common law Body of law based on custom and general principles and that, embodied in case law, serves as precedent or is applied to situations not covered by statute. Under the common-law system, when a court decides and reports its decision concerning a particular case, the case becomes part of the body of law and can be used in later cases involving similar matters. This use of precedents is known as stare decisis. Common law has been administered in the courts of England since the Middle Ages; it is also found in the U.S. and in most of the British Commonwealth. It is distinguished from civil law.
common-law marriage Marriage that is without a civil or religious ceremony and is based on the parties’ agreement to consider themselves married and usually also on their cohabitation for a period of time. Most jurisdictions no longer allow this type of marriage to be formed, though they may recognize such marriages formed before a certain date or formed in a jurisdiction that permits such marriages.
common-lead dating See uranium-thorium-lead dating Common Market See European Economic Community
Common Pleas, Court of English court of law founded in 1178 to hear civil disputes. Under the Magna Carta (1215), it attained jurisdic¬ tion separate from the King’s (Queen’s) Court, though its decisions were subject to review by the latter. Beginning in the 15th century, it competed with the King’s (Queen’s) Court and the Court of Exchequer for common- law business. By the 19th century, the complexity of overlapping juris¬ dictional rules had become unbearable, and all three courts were replaced (under the Judicature Act of 1873) by the Supreme Court of Judicature, which remains the court of general jurisdiction in England and Wales.
Common Prayer, Book of See Book of Common Prayer
common rorqual See fin whale
Commoner, Barry (b. May 28, 1917, Brooklyn, N.Y.) U.S. biologist and educator. He studied at Harvard University and taught at Washington University and Queens College. His warnings, since the 1950s, of the environmental threats posed by modern technology (including nuclear weapons, use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals, and ineffective waste management) in such works as his classic Science and Survival (1966) made him one of the foremost environmentalist spokesmen of his time. He was a third-party candidate for U.S. president in 1980.
Commons, House of Popularly elected lower house of the bicameral British Parliament. Passage of legislation is its primary function. Because it alone has the power to levy taxes and allocate expenditures, it is Brit¬ ain’s chief legislative authority. It originated in the late 13th century, when landholders and other property owners began sending representatives to Parliament to present grievances and petitions to the king and to accept commitments to the payment of taxes. It was the less powerful house until 1911, when the Reform Bill of that year gave it the power to override the House of Lords. The party with the greatest representation in the Com¬ mons forms the government, and the prime minister chooses the cabinet from the party’s members. There are 646 members, elected from single¬ member districts. See also Canadian Parliament; parliamentary democracy.