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have replaced drafting boards. Computer simulation using graphically dis¬ played quantities permits scientific study and testing of such phenomena as nuclear and chemical reactions, gravitational interactions, and physiologi¬ cal systems. See also computer animation; computer art.
computer-integrated manufacturing Data-driven automation that affects all systems or subsystems within a manufacturing environ¬ ment: design and development, production (see CAD/CAM), marketing and sales, and field support and service. Basic manufacturing functions as well as materials-handling and inventory control can also be simulated
by computers before the system is built in an attempt to eliminate wast¬ age. See also artificial intelligence, expert systems, robotics.
computer network See computer network computer printer See computer printer computer program See computer program
computer science Study of computers, their design (see computer architecture), and their uses for computation, data processing, and systems control, including design and development of computer hardware and
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
computer virus ► conceptual art I 445
software, and programming. The field encompasses theory, mathematical activities such as design and analysis of algorithms, performance studies of systems and their components, and estimation of reliability and avail¬ ability of systems by probabilistic techniques. Because computer systems are often too large and complicated for failure or success of a design to be predicted without testing, experimentation is built into the develop¬ ment cycle.
computer virus Computer program designed to copy itself into other programs, with the intention of causing mischief or damage. A virus will usually execute when it is loaded into a computer’s memory. On execu¬ tion, it instructs its host program to copy the viral code into any number of other programs and files stored in the computer. The corrupted pro¬ grams may continue to perform their intended functions while also execut¬ ing the virus’s instructions, thus further propagating it. The infection may transfer itself to other computers through storage devices, computer net¬ works, and on-line systems. A harmless virus may simply cause a cryptic message to appear when the computer is turned on; a more damaging virus can destroy valuable data. Antivirus software may be used to detect and remove viruses from a computer, but the software must be updated fre¬ quently for protection against new viruses.
computer vision Field of robotics in which programs attempt to iden¬ tify objects represented in digitized images provided by video cameras, thus enabling robots to “see.” Much work has been done on stereo vision as an aid to object identification and location within a three-dimensional field of view. Recognition of objects in real time, as would be needed for active robots in complex environments, usually requires computing power beyond the capabilities of present-day technology. See also pattern rec¬ ognition.
computing, quantum See quantum computing
Comstock, Anthony (b. March 7, 1844, New Canaan, Conn., U.S.—d. Sept. 21, 1915, New York, N.Y.) U.S. social reformer. He was an early agitator against abortion and pornography, lobbying successfully for the enactment (1873) of a severe federal statute outlawing the trans¬ portation of obscene matter in the mails (the Comstock Law). In that same year, he founded the Society for the Suppression of Vice, which he directed until his death. As a special agent of the U.S. Post Office (1873— 1915), he conducted spectacular raids on publishers and vendors. His books include Traps for the Young (1883) and Morals Versus Art (1888).
Comte \'ko n t\, (Isidore-) Auguste (-Marie-Francois-Xavier)
(b. Jan. 19, 1798, Montpellier,
France—d. Sept. 5, 1857, Paris)
French thinker, the philosophical founder of sociology and of positivism.
A disciple of Henri de Saint-Simon, he taught at the Ecole Polytechnique (1832—42) but gave free lectures to workingmen. He gave the science of sociology its name and established the new subject on a conceptual (though not empirical) basis, believ¬ ing that social phenomena could be reduced to laws just as natural phe¬ nomena could. His ideas influenced John Stuart Mill (who supported him financially for many years), Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Edward Burnett Tylor. His most important works are Cours de phi- losophie positive (6 vol., 1830-42) and Systeme de politique positive (4 vol., 1851-54).
Conakry Vka-no-.kre, ko-na-'kre\
Capital (regional pop., 1999 est.: 1,764,000), largest city, and chief Atlan¬ tic port of Guinea. Located on Tombo Island and the Kaloum Peninsula, it was founded by the French in 1884. It became the capital successively of the protectorate of Rivieres du Sud (1891), the colony of French Guinea (1893), and independent Guinea (1958). Tombo Island, the site of the original settlement, is linked to the peninsula by a causeway. The city was industrialized in the 1950s after iron mining and bauxite production had been developed. It is the seat of the University of Conakry (1962).
Conall Cernach Vko-n3l-'k y er-n3k\ Legendary warrior of Celtic mythology who appears in many stories. In “Bricriu’s Feast” in the Ulster cycle, he is one of three knights challenged by a giant to let him chop their heads off after they behead him; of the three, only Cu Chulainn keeps the bargain. Conall Cernach is probably related to Cernunnos, and their names may be cognates. See also Gawain.
Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur (b. May 22, 1859, Edinburgh, Scot.—d. July 7, 1930, Crowborough, Sussex, Eng.) Scottish writer. He became a doctor and practiced until 1891, studying with Dr. Joseph Bell, who was the model for his fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes. Conan Doyle was knighted for his medical work in the second South African War and his public defense of the war. Holmes first appeared in “A Study in Scarlet” (1887). Collections of Holmes stories began with The Adventures of Sher¬ lock Holmes (1892). Tiring of Holmes, Conan Doyle devised his death in 1893, only to be forced by public demand to restore him to life. His other Holmes novels include The Sign of Four (1890), The Hound of the Basker- villes (1902), and The Valley of Fear (1915). His historical romances include The White Company (1890). Late in life, Conan Doyle devoted himself to spiritualism.
Conant Vko-n3nt\, James B(ryant) (b. March 26, 1893, Dorchester, Mass., U.S.—d. Feb. 11, 1978, Hanover, N.H.) U.S. educator and scien¬ tist, president of Harvard University (1933-53). Conant received a Ph.D. (1916) from Harvard and taught chemistry there until he was elected its president in 1933. He led the university to broaden the social and geo¬ graphic makeup of its student body. During World War II he was a cen¬ tral figure in organizing American science, including the development of the atomic bomb. In 1953 he was appointed U.S. high commissioner for West Germany, and in 1955 he was appointed ambassador. His publica¬ tions include chemistry textbooks, works on science for the lay reader, and books on educational policy.
concentration camp Internment centre established by a government to confine political prisoners or members of national or minority groups for reasons of state security, exploitation, or punishment. The prisoners are usually selected by executive decree or military order. Camps are usually built to house many people, typically in highly crowded conditions. Coun¬ tries that have used such camps include Britain during the South African War, the Soviet Union (see Gulag), the U.S. (see Manzanar Relocation Center), and Japan, which interned Dutch civilians in the Dutch East Indies during World War II. A variation, called a “reeducation camp,” was widely used in China during the Cultural Revolution and in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge. Most notorious were the death camps of Nazi Germany, including Auschwitz, Bergen-Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, and Treblinka.