Congo, Republic of the known as Congo (Brazzaville) formerly Middle Congo Republic, west-central Africa. Area: 132,047 sq mi (342,000 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 3,602,000. Capitaclass="underline" Brazzaville.
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2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
CONGO
Roughly half of the population belongs to one of the Kongo tribes. The Teke are less numerous, as are the Mboshi and several other peoples. Languages: French (offi¬ cial), various Bantu languages. Religions:
Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic, also other Christians, Protestant); also traditional beliefs. Currency: CFA franc. A narrow coastal plain edges Congo’s 100-mi (160-km) stretch of Atlantic coastline, rising into low mountains and plateaus that slope eastward in a vast plain to the Congo River. The country straddles the Equator; rainforests cover nearly two- thirds of the land, and wildlife is abundant. Congo has a mixed, devel¬ oping economy. Mining products, crude petroleum, and natural gas account for more than 90% of the country’s exports. A 1997 transitional constitution vested executive power in the president and legislative power in a national transitional council. In precolonial days the area was home to several thriving kingdoms, including the Kongo, which had its begin¬ nings in the 1st millennium ad. The save trade began in the 15th century with the arrival of the Portuguese; it supported the local kingdoms and dominated the area until its suppression in the 19th century. The French arrived in the mid-19th century and established treaties with two of the kingdoms, placing them under French protection prior to their becoming part of the colony of French Congo. In 1910 it was renamed French Equa¬ torial Africa, and the area of the Congo became known as Middle (Moyen) Congo. In 1946 Middle Congo became a French overseas territory, and in 1958 it voted to become an autonomous republic within the French Community. Full independence came two years later. The area has suffered from political instability since independence. Congo’s first president was
ousted in 1963. A Marxist party, the Congolese Labor Party, gained strength, and in 1968 another coup, led by Major Marien Ngouabi, cre¬ ated the People’s Republic of the Congo. Ngouabi was assassinated in 1977. A series of military rulers followed, at first militantly socialist but later oriented toward social democracy. Fighting between local militias in 1997 badly disrupted the economy; a peace process was under way at the beginning of the 21st century.
Congo Free State See Democratic Republic of the Congo
Congo River or Zaire \za-'ir\ River River, west-central Africa. Ris¬ ing in Zambia as the Chambeshi and flowing 2,900 mi (4,700 km) through the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Atlantic Ocean, it is the second longest river in Africa. It flows through three contrasting regions: the upper Congo, characterized by lakes, waterfalls, and rapids; the middle Congo, with seven cataracts known as Boyoma (Stanley) Falls; and the lower Congo, which divides into two branches forming a vast lake area called the Malebo (Stanley) Pool.
Congregationalism Movement that arose among English Protestant Christian churches in the late 16th and early 17th century. It developed as one branch of Puritanism and emphasized the right and duty of each congregation to govern itself independent of higher human authority. Its greatest influence and numbers were in the U.S., where Puritans first established it at Plymouth Colony. The HalfWay Covenant (1662) loos¬ ened requirements for church membership, and the Great Awakening led U.S. Congregationalism away from its Calvinist roots. Many churches defected to Unitarianism. In general, Congregationalists eschew creeds and emphasize preaching over sacraments, accepting only baptism and the Eucharist. English Congregationalists are now part of the United Reform Church. Most American Congregationalists are now part of the United Church of Christ. Baptist, Disciples of Christ, and Unitarian Universalist churches also practice congregational polity.
Congress of the United States Legislature of the U.S., separated structurally from the executive and judicial (see judiciary) branches of gov¬ ernment. Established by the Constitution of the United States, it succeeded the unicameral congress created by the Articles of Confederation (1781). It consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Representa¬ tion in the Senate is fixed at two senators per state. Until passage of the 17th Amendment (1913), senators were appointed by the state legisla¬ tures; since then they have been elected directly. In the House, represen¬ tation is proportional to each state’s population; total membership is restricted (since 1912) to 435 members (the total rose temporarily to 437 following the admission of Hawaii and Alaska as states in 1959). Con¬ gressional business is processed by committees: bills are debated in com¬ mittees in both houses, and reconciliation of the two resulting versions takes place in a conference committee. A presidential veto can be over¬ ridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. Congress’s constitutional powers include the setting and collecting of taxes, borrowing money on credit, regulating commerce, coining money, declaring war, raising and supporting armies, and making all laws necessary for the execution of its powers. All finance-related legislation must originate in the House; pow¬ ers exclusive to the Senate include approval of presidential nomina¬ tions, ratification of treaties, and adjudication of impeachments. See also BICAMERAL SYSTEM.
Congress Party See Indian National Congress
Congreve, William (b. Jan. 24,
1670, Bardsey, near Leeds, York¬ shire, Eng.—d. Jan. 19, 1729, Lon¬ don) English dramatist. He was a young protege of John Dryden when his first major play. The Old Bache- lour (1693), met with great success.
Later came The Double-Dealer (1693), Love for Love (1695), and The Way of the World (1700), his masterpiece. Other works include the once-popular tragedy The Mourning Bride (1697), many poems, transla¬ tions, and two opera librettos. Con¬ greve shaped the English comedy of
William Congreve, oil painting by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1709; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.
COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
conic section ► Connery i 451
manners with his brilliant comic dialogue, satirical portrayal of fashion¬ able society, uproarious bawdiness, and ironic scrutiny of the affectations of his age. See also Restoration uterature.
conic section Any two-dimensional curve traced by the intersection of a right circular cone with a plane. If the plane is perpendicular to the cone’s axis, the resulting curve is a circle. Intersections at other angles result in ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. The conic sections are studied in Euclidean geometry to analyze their physical properties and in analytic geometry to derive their equations. In either context, they have useful applications to optics, antenna design, structural engineering, and architecture.
conifer Any member of the order Coniferales, woody plants that bear their seeds and pollen on separate, coNE-shaped structures. They constitute the largest division of gymnosperms, with more than 550 species. Most are evergreen, upright trees and shrubs. They grow throughout the world (except in Antarctica) and prefer temperate climate zones. Conifers include the pines ( Pinus ), junipers ( Juniperus ), spruces ( Picea ), hemlocks ( Tsuga ), firs (Abies), larches (Larix), YEWS ( Taxus ), cypresses ( Cupressus ), bald cypress cypresses ( Taxodium ), Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga), arborvitaes (Thuja), and related groups. They include the world’s smallest and tallest trees. Conifers supply softwood timber used for general construction, mine timbers, fence posts, poles, boxes and crates, and other articles, as well as pulpwood for paper. The wood is also used as fuel and in the manufacture of cellulose products, plywood, and veneers. The trees are the source of resins, volatile oils, turpentine, tars, and pharmaceuticals. Conifer leaves vary in shape but generally have a reduced surface area to minimize water loss. Especially in the pines, firs, and spruces, the leaves are long and stiff and are commonly referred to as needles. Cypresses, cedars, and others have smaller, scalelike leaves. Conifers were the domi¬ nant type of vegetation just before the advent of angiosperms (see flow¬ ering PLANT).