conscientious objector One who opposes participation in military service, on the basis of religious, philosophical, or political belief. A fea¬ ture of Western society since the beginning of the Christian era, consci¬ entious objection developed as a doctrine of the Mennonites (16th century), the Society of Friends (17th century), and others. Exemptions may be unconditional, conditioned on alternative civilian service, or lim¬ ited to combat duty. Those who refuse conscription may face imprison¬ ment. Philosophical or political reasons are acceptable grounds for exemption in many European countries, but the U.S. recognizes only membership in a religious group that endorses pacifism.
consciousness Quality or state of being aware. As applied to the lower animals, consciousness refers to the capacity for sensation and, usually, simple volition. In higher animals, this capacity may also include think¬ ing and emotion. In human beings, consciousness is understood to include “meta-awareness,” an awareness that one is aware. The term also refers broadly to the upper level of mental life of which the person is aware, as contrasted with unconscious processes. Levels of consciousness (e.g., attention vs. sleep) are correlated with patterns of electrical activity in the brain (brain waves). See also philosophy of mind.
conscription or draft Compulsory enrollment for service in a coun¬ try’s armed forces. It has existed at least since the Egyptian Old King¬ dom in the 27th century bc. It usually takes the form of selective service rather than universal conscription. (The latter generally refers to compul-
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sory military service by all able-bodied men between certain ages, though a few countries—notably Israel—have also drafted women.) In the 19th century Prussia’s system of building up a large standing army through conscription became the model for competing European powers. During the American Civil War both the federal government and the Confederacy instituted a draft, but the U.S. did not use it again until entering World War I in 1917. Like the U.S., Britain abandoned conscription at the end of World War I but reverted to it when World War II threatened. During the ensuing Cold War, Britain retained the draft until 1960 and the U.S. until 1973. See also U.S. Army.
consequentialism In ethics, the doctrine that actions should be judged right or wrong on the basis of their consequences. The simplest form of consequentialism is classical (or hedonistic) utilitarianism, which asserts that an action is right or wrong according to whether it maximizes the net balance of pleasure over pain in the universe. The consequentialism of G.E. Moore, known as “ideal utilitarianism,” recognizes beauty and friendship, as well as pleasure, as intrinsic goods that one’s actions should aim to maximize. According to the “preference utilitarianism” of R.M. Hare (1919-2002), actions are right if they maximize the satisfaction of preferences or desires, no matter what the preferences may be for. Con- sequentialists also differ over whether each individual action should be judged on the basis of its consequences or whether instead general rules of conduct should be judged in this way and individual actions judged only by whether they accord with a general rule. The former group are known as “act-utilitarians” and the latter as “rule-utilitarians.” See also DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS.
conservation Planned management of a natural resource or of a par¬ ticular ecosystem to prevent exploitation, pollution, destruction, or neglect and to ensure the future usability of the resource. Living resources are renewable, minerals and fossil fuels are nonrenewable. In the West, con¬ servation efforts date to 17th-century efforts to protect European forests in the face of increasing demands for fuel and building materials. National parks, first established in the 19th century, were dedicated to the preser¬ vation of uncultivated land not only to provide a safe haven to wildlife but to protect watershed areas and help ensure a clean water supply. National legislation and international treaties and regulations aim to strike a balance between the need for development and the need to conserve the environment for the future.
conservation law or law of conservation In physics, the prin¬ ciple that certain quantities within an isolated system do not change over time. When a substance in an isolated system changes phase, the total amount of mass does not change. When energy is changed from one form to another in an isolated system, there is no change in the total amount of energy. When a transfer of momentum occurs in an isolated system, the total amount of momentum is conserved. The same is true for electric charge in a system: charge lost by one particle is gained by another. Con¬ servation laws make it possible to predict the macroscopic behaviour of a system without having to consider the microscopic details of a physical process or chemical reaction.
conservation of energy See conservation of energy
conservatism Political attitude or ideology denoting a preference for institutions and practices that have evolved historically and are thus mani¬ festations of continuity and stability. It was first expressed in the modern era through the works of Edmund Burke in reaction to the French Revolu¬ tion, which Burke believed tarnished its ideals through its excesses. Con¬ servatives believe that the implementation of change should be minimal and gradual; they appreciate history and are more realistic than idealis¬ tic. Well-known conservative parties include the British Conservative Party, the German Christian Democratic Union, the U.S. Republican Party, and the Japanese Liberal-Democratic Party. See also Christian Democracy;
LIBERALISM.
Conservative Judaism Form of Judaism that mediates between Reform Judaism and Orthodox Judaism. Founded in 19th-century Germany as the Historical School, it arose among German-Jewish theologians who advocated change but found Reform positions extreme. They accepted the Reform emphasis on critical scholarship, but wished to maintain a stricter observance of Jewish law (e.g., dietary laws) and continued belief in the coming of the Messiah. In 1886, rabbis of this centrist persuasion founded the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (New York), leading to the development of Conservative Judaism as a religious movement.
Conservative Party (Canada) See Progressive Conservative Party of Canada
Conservative Party officially National Union of Conserva¬ tive and Unionist Associations. British political party whose guid¬ ing principles include promotion of private property and enterprise, maintenance of a strong military and foreign policy, and preservation of traditional cultural values and institutions. It is the heir of the old Tory Party, whose members began forming “conservative associations” after electoral rights were extended to the middle class in 1832. The modem party (whose members are often known as Tories) is essentially a coali¬ tion of two groups, and must balance its traditionalist and communitar¬ ian wing against its libertarian and individualist wing. It also experiences internal conflict over Britain’s relationship with the European Union. Its membership is heavily dependent on the landowning and middle classes, but its electoral base has extended at times to incorporate about one-third of the working class. Since World War I, it and the Labour Party have dominated British politics.