Constant \ko n -'sta n \ (de Rebecque), (Henri-) Benjamin (b. Oct. 25, 1767, Lausanne, Switz.—d. Dec. 8, 1830, Paris, France) French-Swiss novelist and political writer. He had a tumultuous 12-year relationship with Germaine de Stael, whose views influenced him to support the French Revolution and subsequently to oppose Napoleon, for which he was exiled (1803-14). He later served in the Chamber of Deputies (1819-30). Ado¬ lphe (1816) was a forerunner of the modem psychological novel. Among his other works are the long historical analysis of religious feeling De la Religion, 5 vol. (1824-31) and his revealing journals (first complete pub¬ lication, 1952).
Consfanta \kon-'stant-s9\ Turkish Kostendje ancient Constanti-
ana or Tomis City (pop., 2002: 715,151), chief seaport of Romania. The first known settlement in the area was at the ancient city of Tomis, founded in the 7th century bc by the Greeks. Romans annexed the region in the 1st century bc; Ovid was exiled there in ad 9-17. In the 4th cen¬ tury Tomis was reconstructed by Constantine the Great and renamed Con- stantiana. It was subject to numerous invasions from the 6th century on, and it declined following the Turkish conquest in the early 15th century. Its modem development as an industrial, trading, and cultural centre dates from its return to Romania in 1878.
Constantine Vkan-st3n-,ten\ ancient Cirta City (pop., 1998: 807,371), northeastern Algeria. A natural fortress, it is situated on a rocky height some 800 ft (250 m) above the Rhumel River valley. By the 3rd century bc it was one of Numidia’s most important towns, and it reached its apex of prosperity under Micipsa in the 2nd century bc. Ruined in subsequent wars, it was restored in ad 313 and renamed for its patron, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Overrun by the Arabs in the 7th century, it was ruled by a series of Arab and Berber dynasties and, intermittently, by the Ottoman Empire until it was captured by the French in 1837. Occupied in 1942 by U.S. troops, it was an important Allied staging area in World War II (1939-45). The city retains its medieval walls, and there are Roman ruins nearby. It is an agricultural market for the surrounding area.
Constantine I known as Constantine the Great officially Flavius Valerius Constantinus (b. Feb. 27, after ad 280?, Naissus, Moesia—d. May 22, 337, Ancyrona, near Nicomedia, Bithynia) First Roman emperor to profess Christianity. The eldest son of Constantius I Chlorus, he spent his youth at the court of Diocletian. Passed over as suc¬ cessor to the throne, he fought to make himself emperor. Victory at the Milvian Bridge outside Rome (312) made him emperor in the West; according to legend, a cross and the words in hoc signo vinces (“In this sign, conquer”) appeared to him there and he forthwith adopted Chris¬ tianity. In 313 he issued, with Licinius, the Edict of Milan, granting toler¬ ance to Christians; he also gave land for churches and granted the church special privileges. He opposed heresies, notably Donatism and Arianism, and he convoked the important Council of Nicaea. After defeating and executing Licinius, he gained control of the East and became sole emperor. He moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (324). In 326 he had his wife and eldest son killed for reasons that remain obscure. He angered the Romans by refusing to participate in a pagan rite and never entered Rome again. Under his patronage, Christianity began its growth into a world religion. Constan¬ tine is revered as a saint in the Orthodox church.
Constantine I Greek Constantinos (b. Aug. 2, 1868, Athens, Greece—d. Jan. 11, 1923, Palermo, Italy) King of Greece (1913-17,
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Constantine II ► Constitution of 1791 I 455
1920-22). Son of King George I of the Hellenes (1845-1913), he was educated in Germany and was commander in chief of Greek forces in the Balkan Wars. He succeeded his father in 1913, but his neutralist, yet essentially pro-German, attitude during World War I caused the Allies and his Greek opponents to depose him in 1917. He was restored to the throne in 1920, but, after a catastrophic war in Anatolia, he abdicated in favor of his son, George II, in 1922.
Constantine II Greek Constantinos (b. June 2, 1940, Psikhiko, near Athens, Greece) King of Greece (1964-74). Son of Paul I (1901-64), he succeeded his father in 1964. After a military coup in 1967, he and his family fled to Rome. The military regime appointed a regent in his place and granted him a free return if he wished. In 1973 the military regime proclaimed a republic and abolished the monarchy. In 1974 a civilian ref¬ erendum officially ended the monarchy.
Constantine V Copronymus \k3-'pran-o-m9s\ (b. 718,
Constantinople—d. Sept. 14, 775) Byzantine emperor (741-75). The son of Leo III. he ruled with his father from 720. He spent his life defeating Arab and Bulgar threats to the empire and was unable to prevent the Lombards from taking Ravenna (751), thus ending Byzantine influence in northern and central Italy. A strong iconoclast (see iconoclasm), he per¬ secuted monks who disagreed with his position. He died in the Balkans on a military campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom.
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus X.por-fo-ro-'jen-ot-osV (b. Sept. 905, Constantinople—d. Nov. 9, 959) Byzantine emperor (913-59). Coemperor with his father, Leo VI, from 911, he became sole ruler in 913. His father-in-law, Romanus I Lecapenus, was crowned coemperor with him in 920 and soon became the primary ruler. Shut out of government, Constantine devoted himself to scholarship; his writings include works on the Slavic and Turkic peoples and on Byzantine ceremonies. In 944 the sons of Romanus, impatient for power, had their father deported, and the ensuing public outcry emboldened Constantine to banish them in 945; he then ruled alone until his death.
Constantine IX Monomachus Xmo-'na-mo-kosX (b. c. 980—d. Jan. 11, 1055) Byzantine emperor (1042-55). He gained the imperial throne by marrying Zoe, empress of the Macedonian dynasty. An opponent of the great military leaders, he neglected imperial defenses, instead spend¬ ing extravagantly on luxuries and magnificent buildings. Rebellions broke out at home and abroad, and Byzantine lands were threatened by invad¬ ers in southern Italy, Thrace, Macedonia, and Armenia. Constantine tried to ally with the papacy to save southern Italy from the Normans, but growing differences between Rome and Constantinople resulted in the Schism of 1054.
Constantine XI Palaeologus \,pa-le-'a-l3-g9s\ (b. Feb. 9, 1404, Constantinople—d. May 29, 1453, Constantinople) Last Byzantine emperor (1449-53), sometimes called Constantine XII because of the erroneous notion that Constantine Lascaris was crowned in 1204. He became emperor when his brother John VIII Palaeologus died childless, but he faced a losing battle against the Ottoman Turks, who were direct¬ ing all their resources toward the capture of Constantinople. He acknowl¬ edged the obedience of the Greek church to Rome in order to secure help from the West, but in vain. He was killed fighting at the walls of Con¬ stantinople as the Turks broke through.
Constantine, Donation of See Donation of Constantine
Constantine the African Latin Constantinus Africanus (b. c.
1020, Carthage or Sicily—d. 1087, monastery of Monte Cassino, near Cassino, Principality of Benevento) Medieval medical scholar. He was the first to translate Arabic medical works into Latin. His 37 translated books included The Total Art, a short version of the The Royal Book by the 10th-century Persian physician 'All ibn al-'Abbas, introducing Islam’s extensive knowledge of Greek medicine to the West. His translations of Hippocrates and Galen first gave the West a view of Greek medicine as a whole.
Constantinople See Istanbul
Constantinople, Council of Any of several church councils, some of which are recognized as ecumenical, held in the city of Constantino¬ ple. The First Council of Constantinople, the second ecumenical council of the Christian church, was summoned by Emperor Theodosius I in 381. It promulgated the Nicene Creed and declared finally the Trinitarian doc¬ trine of the equality of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. It gave the bishop of