Constitutional Act or Canada Bill (1791) British law repealing certain portions of the Quebec Act of 1774. The new act provided a more democratic constitution for the area, establishing an elected legislature for each province, the first in that part of Canada, and a governor and an executive council appointed by the crown. Bills could originate in the legislature, but they could be disallowed by the crown.
Constitutional Convention (May-September 1787) Assembly that drafted the Constitution of the United States. All states but Rhode Island sent delegates in response to a call by the Annapolis Convention for a meeting in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation. The delegates decided to replace the Articles with a document that strengthened the federal gov¬ ernment. An important issue was the apportioning of legislative represen¬ tation. Two plans were presented: the Virginia plan, favoured by the large
states, apportioned representatives by population or wealth; the New Jersey plan, favoured by the small states, provided for equal representation for each state. A compromise established the bicameral Congress to ensure both equal and proportional representation. The document was approved on September 17 and sent to the states for ratification.
Constitutional Democratic Party or Kadet Russian political party advocating a radical change in Russian government toward a con¬ stitutional monarchy like Britain’s. It was founded in October 1905 by the Union of Liberation and other liberals associated with the zemstvos. Its members, called Kadets, dominated the first Duma in 1906 but were less successful thereafter. After the Bolsheviks seized power in 1917, the party was outlawed and ceased to function.
Constitutional Laws of 1875 In France, a series of fundamental laws that, taken collectively, came to be known as the constitution of the Third Republic. It established a two-house legislature (with an indirectly elected Senate as a conservative check on the popularly elected Chamber of Deputies); a Council of Ministers responsible to the Chamber; and a president with powers resembling those of a constitutional monarch. It left untouched many aspects of the French governmental structure.
constitutional monarchy System of government in which a monarch (see monarchy) shares power with a constitutionally organized govern¬ ment. The monarch may be the de facto head of state or a purely ceremonial leader. The constitution allocates the rest of the government’s power to the legislature and judiciary. Britain became a constitutional monarchy under the Whigs; other constitutional monarchies include Belgium, Cambodia, Jordan, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and Thailand.
Constitutions of Clarendon See Constitutions of Carendon
constructivism Theory that interprets mathematical statements as true if and only if there is a proof of them and as false just in case there is a disproof of them. Constructivism opposes the Platonist interpretation, which construes mathematical statements as referring to a domain of time¬ less mathematical objects existing independently of our knowledge of them (see form, Patonism). For the constructivist, certain classically valid forms of logical inference (e.g., the law of excluded middle, the law of double negation, the postulation of infinite sets) may no longer be employed unrestrictedly in constructing mathematical proofs (see logic). The constructivist therefore recognizes fewer mathematical proofs and theorems than does the Platonist. See also intuitionism.
Constructivism Russian movement in art and architecture, initiated in 1914 by the abstract geometric constructions of Vadimir Tatlin. In 1920 Tatlin was joined by Antoine Pevsner and Naum Gabo. Their “Realist Manifesto,” which directed their followers to “construct art,” gave the movement its name. The group, soon joined by Aleksandr Rodchenko and El Lissitzky, produced abstract works reflecting modern machinery and technology, using plastic, glass, and other industrial materials. Applying the same principles to architecture, they spread the movement’s ideals throughout Europe and to the U.S. after Soviet opposition dispersed the group. See also Bauhaus; De Stijl.
consul In the Roman republic, either of two annually elected chief mag¬ istrates. The consuls had sacred rights and near-absolute authority. They were nominated by the Senate and elected by the popular assembly; each could veto the other’s decisions. As heads of state, they commanded the army, presided over the Senate and assemblies and acted on their decrees, and handled foreign affairs. At the end of his one-year term, a consul was generally appointed to serve as governor of a province. The office con¬ tinued in weaker form under the empire.
Consulate (1799- 1804) French government established after the Coup of 18-19 Brumaire. The Constitution of the Year VIII created an executive consisting of three consuls, but the First Consul, Napoleon, wielded all real power, while the other two, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes and Pierre-Roger Ducos (1747-1816), were figureheads. The principles of representation and legislative supremacy were discarded. The executive branch was given the power to draft new laws, and the legislative branch became little more than a rubber stamp. Elections became an elaborate charade, with voters stripped of real power. Napoleon abolished the Consulate when he declared himself emperor.
consumer credit Short- and intermediate-term loans used to finance the purchase of commodities or services for personal consumption. The loans may be supplied by lenders in the form of cash loans or by sellers
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consumer goods ► Continental Congress I 457
in the form of sales credit. Installment loans, such as automobile loans and credit-card purchases, are paid back in two or more payments; non¬ installment loans, such as the service credit extended by utility compa¬ nies, are paid back in a lump sum. Consumer loans usually carry a higher rate of interest than business loans. See also credit.
consumer goods Any tangible commodity purchased by households to satisfy their wants and needs. Consumer goods may be durable or non¬ durable. Durable goods (e.g., autos, furniture, and appliances) have a sig¬ nificant life span, often defined as three years or more, and consumption is spread over this span. Nondurable goods (e.g., food, clothing, and gasoline) are purchased for immediate or almost immediate consumption and have a life span ranging from minutes to three years. See also pro¬ ducer goods.
consumer price index (CPI) Measure of living costs based on changes in retail prices. Consumer price iNDEXes are widely used to mea¬ sure changes in the cost of maintaining a given standard of living. The goods and services commonly purchased by the population covered are priced periodically, and their prices are combined in proportion to their relative importance. This set of prices is compared with the initial set of prices collected in the base year to determine the percentage increase or decrease. The population covered may be restricted to wage and salary earners or to city dwellers, and special indexes may be used for special population groups (e.g., retirees). Such indexes do not take into account shifts over time in what the population buys; when modified to take sub¬ jective preferences into account, they are called constant-utility indexes. Consumer price indexes are available for more than 100 countries.
consumer protection Legal framework promoting customer safety and education and providing protection from hazardous or substandard products and from fraud. In the U.S., the Federal Trade Commission (established 1914) and the Food and Drug Administration (established 1927) help ensure consumer protection. Regulations address manufacture and design, advertising, labeling, and sales methods. In 1985 the UN pro¬ duced its Guidelines for Consumer Protection (updated 1995); they cover consumer safety and product standards and education, providing a frame¬ work and a benchmark for governments (particularly of less developed countries) to establish a legal basis for consumer protection. See also CONSUMERISM, RALPH NADER.