consumer psychology Branch of social psychology concerned with the market behaviour of consumers. Consumer psychologists examine the preferences, customs, and habits of various consumer groups; their research on consumer attitudes is often used to help design advertising campaigns and to formulate new products.
consumerism Movement or policies aimed at regulating the products, services, methods, and standards of manufacturers, sellers, and advertisers in the interests of the buyer. Such regulation may be institutional, statutory, or embodied in a voluntary code accepted by a particular industry, or it may result more indirectly from the influence of consumer organizations. Gov¬ ernments often establish formal regulatory agencies to ensure consumer protection (in the U.S., e.g., the Federal Trade Commission and the Food and Drug Administration). Some of the earliest consumer-protection laws were created to prevent the sale of tainted food and harmful drugs. The U.S. consumer protection movement gained strength in the 1960s and ’70s as consumer activists led by Ralph Nader lobbied for laws setting safety stan¬ dards for automobiles, toys, and numerous household products. Consumer advocates have also won passage of laws obliging advertisers to represent their goods truthfully and preventing sales representatives from using deceptive sales tactics. Consumer advocacy is carried on worldwide by the International Organization of Consumers Unions (IOCU).
consumer's surplus In economics, the difference between the total amount consumers would be willing to pay to consume the quantity of goods transacted on the market and the amount they actually have to pay for those goods. The former is generally interpreted as the monetary value of consumer satisfaction. The concept was developed in 1844 by the French civil engineer Arsene-Jules-Etienne-Juvenal Dupuit (1804-1866) and popularized by Alfred Marshall. Though economists adopted a non- quantifiable approach to consumer satisfaction in the 20th century, the concept is used extensively in the fields of welfare economics and taxation.
consumption In economics, the final using up of goods and services. The term excludes the use of intermediate products in the production of other goods (e.g., the purchase of buildings and machinery by a business).
Economists use statistical information on income and purchases to trace trends in consumption, seeking to map consumer demand for goods and services. In classical economics, consumers are assumed to be rational and to allocate expenditures in such a way as to maximize total satisfaction from all purchases. Incomes and prices are seen as consumption’s two major determinants. Critics of the model point out that there are many exceptions to rational consumer behaviour—for example, the phenom¬ enon of conspicuous consumption, in which the high price of a product increases its prestige and adds to demand.
consumption See tuberculosis
consumption tax Levy such as an excise tax, a sales tax, or a tariff paid directly or indirectly by the consumer. Consumption taxes fall more heavily on lower-income than on upper-income groups because people with less money consume a larger proportion of their income than those with more money. See also progressive tax, regressive tax.
contact lens Thin artificial lens worn on the surface of the eye to correct refractive defects of vision. Early glass contact lenses, invented in 1887, were uncomfortable and could not be worn long. Plastic-based lenses, made to measurements of corneal curvature taken by optical instruments, were first developed in the mid 20th century. Gas-permeable lenses allow more oxygen to reach the eye, thus increasing comfort and wear time. Contact lenses have advantages over eyeglasses for certain visual defects and may be preferred for the sake of appearance and other reasons.
containership Oceangoing vessel designed to transport large, standard-sized containers of freight. Rail-and-road containers were used early in the 20th century; in the 1960s containerization became a major element in ocean shipping as well. Containerships, which are large and fast, carry containers above deck as well as below, and their cargoes can be loaded and unloaded rapidly.
containment Strategic U.S. foreign policy of the late 1940s and early 1950s intended to check the expansionist designs of the Soviet Union through economic, military, diplomatic, and political means. It was con¬ ceived by George Kennan soon after World War II. An early application of containment was the Truman Doctrine (1947), which guaranteed U.S. aid to “free peoples” resisting “armed subjugation” by communist forces. See also Marshall Plan.
contempt In law, willful disobedience to or open disrespect of a court, judge, or legislative body. An act of disobedience to a court order may be treated as either criminal or civil contempt; sanctions for the latter end upon compliance with the order. An act or language that consists solely of an affront to a court or interferes with the conduct of its business con¬ stitutes criminal contempt; such contempt carries sanctions designed to punish as well as to coerce compliance. In the U.S., a congressional com¬ mittee can compel the attendance of witnesses. Any witness failing to appear or otherwise obstructing the committee in the course of exercis¬ ing its powers may be in contempt. Witnesses are, however, protected by the 5th Amendment against forced self-incrimination. See also perjury.
Conti family French branch of the House of Bourbon. The title of prince of Conti, created in the 16th century, was revived in favor of Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1629-1666), who was a leader in the Fronde. He was the younger brother and rival of the prince de Conde (“the Great Conde”). Notable members of the Conti family include Frangois-Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1664-1709), who was a candidate for the Pol¬ ish throne; and Louis-Frangois de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1717-1776), who served in the War of the Austrian Succession. The House of Conti became extinct with the death of Louis-Frangois-Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1734-1814), who had distinguished himself in the Seven Years’ War.
continent One of seven large continuous masses of land: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia (listed in order of size). Europe and Asia are sometimes considered a single con¬ tinent, Eurasia. The continents vary greatly in size and in ratio of coastline to total area. More than two-thirds of the world’s continental land area lies north of the equator, and all the continents except Antarctica are wedge- shaped, wider in the north than in the south. See also continental drift.
Continental Congress Body of delegates that acted for the Ameri¬ can colonies and states during and after the American Revolution. The First Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia in September 1774, was called by the colonial Committees of Correspondence. The delegates
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adopted a declaration of personal rights, denounced taxation without rep¬ resentation, petitioned the British crown for a redress of grievances, and called for a boycott of British goods. The Second Continental Congress, meeting in May 1775, appointed George Washington commander in chief of the army. It later approved the Declaration of Independence (1776) and prepared the Articles of Confederation (1781), which granted certain pow¬ ers to the Congress.
Continental Divide Most notable watershed of the North American continent. The mountains comprising it extend generally north-south, thus dividing the continent’s principal drainage into waters flowing eastward (e.g., into Hudson Bay in Canada or the Mississippi River in the U.S.) and waters flowing westward (into the Pacific Ocean). Most of the divide runs along the crest of the Rocky Mountains, through British Columbia in Canada and through the states of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico in the U.S. Its central point is Colorado, where it has many peaks above 13,000 ft (3,962 m). It continues southward into Mexico, roughly paralleling the Sierra Madre, and into Central America.