counterglow See gegenschein
counterpoint Art of combining different melodic lines in a musical composition. The term is often used interchangeably with polyphony (music consisting of two or more distinct melodic lines), but counterpoint more specifically refers to the compositional technique involved in the handling of these melodic lines. The first recorded use of two melodic lines simultaneously was in 9th-century treatises showing examples of organum (a type of music for multiple voices), though improvised counterpoint—in which the voices probably moved mostly parallel to each other, and thus failed to convey an impression of independence— may date back to some centuries earlier. The desire to ensure pleasant consonances and avoid unpleasant dissonances when improvising (see consonance and dissonance) called for principles of simultaneous vocal motion (voice leading). Because the relative movement of voices approaching and leaving given intervals was thought to produce effects that were more or less pleasing, rules were created to govern various types of relative motion. The “vertical” aspect of counterpoint—the relation¬ ship between the melodic lines—came to be studied as harmony, espe¬ cially from the 18th century. Though harmony and counterpoint are intimately intertwined, most of the multivoiced music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is considered essentially polyphonic or contrapuntal—that is, consisting of a combination of relatively indepen¬ dent and integral melodic lines. In the Baroque era, with the invention of figured bass and the continuo, the balance began to shift toward a har¬ monic orientation.
countertenor Adult male alto voice, either natural or falsetto. Some writers use the term only for the natural high tenor, preferring “male alto” for the falsetto voice. Like the castrato tradition, the countertenor devel¬ oped as a result of the prohibition on women taking part in church choirs. Since the falsetto voice lacks power, it was little used in opera. The coun¬ tertenor tradition was preserved in the English cathedral choir. Today it is again being widely cultivated internationally, primarily for Renaissance and Baroque music.
country dance or contredanse Vkan-tr3-,dans\ Type of social dance for couples, popular in the 17th century. Derived from English folk dance, the country dance is performed in one of three forms: circular or
round; “longways,” with rows of couples facing each other; and geomet¬ ric, in squares or triangles. The main source of country-dance steps and songs is John Playford’s The English Dancing Master (1650). The dance was the basis for the 19th-century quadrille. It was taken by colonists to North America as the Virginia reel and, in modified form, as the square dance. There was a modest revival in the 20th century.
country music or country and western Musical style that origi¬ nated among whites in rural areas of the southern and western U.S. The term country and western music was adopted by the music industry in 1949 to replace the derogatory hillbilly music. Its roots lie in the music of the European settlers of the Appalachians and other areas. In the early 1920s the genre began to be commercially recorded; Fiddlin’ John Car- son recorded its first hit. Radio programs such as Nashville’s Grand Ole Opry and Chicago’s National Barn Dance fueled its growth, and grow¬ ing numbers of musicians, such as the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers, began performing on radio and in recording studios. With the migration of Southern whites to industrial cities in the 1930s and ’40s, country music was exposed to new influences, such as blues and gospel music. Its nostal¬ gic bias, with its lyrics about poverty, heartbreak, and homesickness, held special appeal during a time of great population shifts. In the 1930s “sing¬ ing cowboy” film stars, such as Gene Autry, altered country lyrics to pro¬ duce a synthetic “western” music. Other variants include western swing (see Bob Wills) and honky-tonk (see Ernest Tubb and Hank Williams). In the 1940s there was an effort to return to country’s root values (see bluegrass), but commercialization proved a stronger influence, and in the 1950s and ’60s country music became a huge commercial enterprise. Popular sing¬ ers often recorded songs in a Nashville style, while many country music recordings employed lush orchestral backgrounds. Country music has become increasingly acceptable to urban audiences, retaining its vitality with diverse performers such as Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, Dolly Parton, Randy Travis, Garth Brooks, Emmylou Harris, and Lyle Lovett. Despite the influence of other styles, it has retained an unmistakable char¬ acter as one of the few truly indigenous American musical styles.
coup d'etat \,ku-da-'ta\ or coup (French: “stroke of state”) Sudden overthrow, often violent, of an existing government by a group of con¬ spirators. Coups are most common in countries with unstable govern¬ ments and in countries with little experience of successful democracy. Their success depends on surprise and speed. Coups rarely alter a nation’s fundamental social and economic policies or significantly redistribute power. See also military government, revolution.
Coup of 18 Fructldor See Coup of 18 Fructidor Coup of T8-T9 Brumaire See Coup of 18-19 Brumaire
Couperin \kup-'ra n \, Francois (b. Nov. 10, 1668, Paris, France —d. Sept. 12, 1733, Paris) French composer, harpsichordist, and organist. At age 17 he succeeded his father as organist at the important church of St. Gervais and kept the post for some 50 years. He was later also appointed organist and harpsichordist at the court of Louis XIV. Couperin is best known for four books of harpsichord pieces containing some 220 elegant, vivacious, and richly ornamented works {Pieces de clavecin , 1713-30). His other works include a collection of more than 40 organ compositions {Pieces d’orgue, 1709); much sacred vocal music (including the Legons de tenebres, c. 1715); and several sets of chamber music (including the Concerts royaux , 1722). His Art of Playing the Harpsichord (1716) is the most valuable instrumental treatise of its time. He was the foremost French composer of his generation. His uncle Louis Couperin (1626-61), also organist at St. Gervais, composed more than 200 keyboard works.
couple In physics, a pair of equal parallel forces that are opposite in direction. Couples produce or prevent the turning of a body. The forces used to turn the steering wheel of a car constitute a couple; each hand exerts a force, parallel but opposite in direction, yet they work together to achieve the same goal. A couple is also used to turn a screwdriver or a doorknob, and the pair of forces acting on the opposite poles of a com¬ pass needle as it points somewhere between north and south are a couple.
couplet Two successive lines of verse. A couplet is marked usually by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, or the inclusion of a self-contained utterance. Couplets may be independent poems, but they usually function as parts of other verse forms, such as the Shakespearean sonnet, which concludes with a couplet. A couplet that cannot stand alone is an open couplet; a couplet whose sense is relatively independent is a closed cou¬ plet.
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courante ► courtly love I 475
courante \ku-'rant\ (from Latin currere, “to run”) Court dance of the 16th century, fashionable in European ballrooms into the 18th century. It was originally performed with small back-and-forth springing steps, which later became stately glides. Danced to music in quick triple time, the courante followed the allemande and later became part of the musical SUITE.
Courantyne Vkor-on-.tlM River or Corantijn Vkor-3n-.tIn\ or Coe- roeni \ku-'ru-ne\ River, northern South America. Rising in the Akarai Mountains, it flows north for 450 mi (700 km) and empties into the Atlan¬ tic Ocean near Nieuw Nickerie, Suri. It divides Suriname and Guyana; residents of the latter are free to navigate the river but have no fishing rights. It is navigable to small oceangoing vessels for about 45 mi (70 km) to the first rapids at Orealla. The Courantyne basin remains largely undeveloped, with much of it remaining unexplored forest.