Courbet \kur-'ba\, Gustave (b. June 10, 1819, Ornans, France—d. Dec. 31, 1877, La Tour-de-Peilz, Switz.) French painter. In 1839 he went to Paris, where, after receiving some formal training, he learned by copy¬ ing Old Masters in the Louvre. His early works were controversial but received public and critical acclaim. In 1849 and 1850 he produced two of his greatest paintings: respectively, The Stone-Breakers and Burial at Ornans. Both works depart radically from the more-controlled, idealized pictures of either the Neoclassical or the Romantic school; they portray the life and emotions not of aristocrats but of humble peasants, and they do so with a realistic urgency. Such images of everyday life, characterized by a powerful naturalism and boldly portrayed, cast him as a revolution¬ ary socialist. An intimate of many writers and philosophers of his day, he became the leader of the new school of Realism, which in time prevailed over other contemporary movements. His audacity and disrespect for authority were notorious. In 1865 his series depicting storms at sea astounded the art world and opened the way for Impressionism.
Detail from Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and His Children in 1853, oil on canvas by Gustave Courbet, 1865; in the Musee du Petit Palais, Paris.
© DEA PICTURE LIBRARY
coureur de bois Vkii-'rcer-do-'bwaV French "wood runner" French Canadian fur trader of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Most of the coureur de bois traded illicitly (i.e., without the license required by the Quebec government). They sold brandy to Indians, which created diffi¬ culties for the tribes with whom they traded. Though they defied the colo¬ nial authorities, they ultimately benefited them by exploring the frontier, developing the fur trade, and helping ally the Indians with the French and against the English (see French and Indian War).
Courland Vkur-,lant,\ English Vkur-landN Latvian Kurzeme Vkur-zo-.maV Historical region, Latvia. Located on the Baltic Sea, it was named for the Curonians, who had established a tribal kingdom there by the end of the 9th century. Conquered in the 13th century by the Livo¬ nians, in 1561 the area was incorporated into the duchy of Courland, which became a Polish fief. The duchy flourished during the 17th century with the development of industries and foreign trade. From 1737 its duke was a client of the Russian throne, and it came under Russian rule in 1795. It became part of the newly independent Latvia in 1918.
Courland Lagoon Vkur-bnd\ or Kursky Zaliv \'kur-ske-'za-lif\ Inlet of the Baltic Sea at the mouth of the Neman River. Its northern por¬ tion is in Lithuania and its southern portion lies in Kaliningrad province, Russia. With an area of 625 sq mi (1,619 sq km), it is connected to the Baltic by a navigable strait, on which is the Lithuanian port of Klaipeda.
Cournand \kur-'na n \, Andre F(rederic) (b. Sept. 24, 1895, Paris, Fr.—d. Feb. 19, 1988, Great Barrington, Mass., U.S.) French-born U.S. physician and physiologist. He shared a 1956 Nobel Prize with Dickin¬ son W. Richards (b. 1895—d. 1973) and Werner Forssmann for discov¬ eries on heart catheterization and circulatory changes. Cournand and Richards perfected Forssmann’s cardiac catheterization procedure for studying the functioning of diseased hearts to more accurately diagnose underlying anatomic defects. They also used the catheter in the pulmo¬ nary artery, improving diagnosis of lung diseases.
Cournot \kur-'no\, Antoine-Augustin (b. Aug. 28, 1801, Gray, France—d. March 31, 1877, Paris) French economist and mathematician. The first economist to apply mathematics effectively to the treatment of economic questions, he made important contributions with his discussion of supply and demand functions, the shifting of taxes, and problems of international trade, and he is best remembered for his discussion of stra¬ tegic behaviour in a market with only two producers, a so-called duopoly. His principal work is Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth (1838).
Courreges \ku-'rezh\, Andre (b. March 9, 1923, Pau, Fr.) French fashion designer. He went to work in a small Parisian fashion house in 1948 and within a year joined the staff of Cristobal Balenciaga. In 1961 he opened his own house and became established as one of the most original couturiers in Paris. His futuristic styles featured well-cut pants, trapezoidal lines, and miniskirts with white midcalf boots; white became his hallmark. In the 1960s his designs were widely copied. He established control over manufacturing and distribution through licensed outlets.
court In architecture, an outdoor room surrounded by buildings or walls. Courts have existed in all civilizations from the earliest recorded times. The small garden court (atrium) of a Roman house was the center of domestic activity. In medieval Europe the court was a feature of all major residential buildings, as the cloister of a monastery, ward of a castle, or quadrangle of a college. A courtyard is often a utilitarian court (as for stables).
court Official assembly with judicial authority to hear and determine disputes in particular cases. In early judicial tribunals, judges sat in enclo¬ sures (courts in an architectural sense), and lawyers and the general pub¬ lic remained outside a bar (hence the term bar in legal contexts). Modem British courts are divided into those trying criminal cases and those try¬ ing civil cases; a second distinction is made between inferior courts, or courts of first instance, and superior courts, or courts of appeal. In the U.S. each state has its own system of courts, usually consisting of a supe¬ rior (appellate) court, trial courts of general jurisdiction, and specialized courts (e.g., probate courts). The U.S. also has a system of federal courts, established to adjudicate distinctively national questions and cases not appropriately tried in state courts. At the apex of the national system is the Supreme Court of the United States. The secondary level consists of the United States Courts of Appeals. United States District Courts form the ter¬ tiary level. Crimes committed by military figures may be tried in a court- martial. In the past, ecclesiastical courts had broad jurisdiction. See also International Court of Justice; judiciary.
Court, Margaret Smith orig. Margaret Smith (b. July 16, 1942, Albury, N.S.W., Austl.) Australian tennis player. She dominated women’s tennis in the 1960s, winning 66 grand-slam championships in her career, more than any other person. In 1970 she became the second woman (after Maureen Connolly) to win the grand-slam (the Wimbledon, U.S., Austra¬ lian, and French singles titles). In 1963, with fellow Australian Kenneth Fletcher, she became the only player to achieve the grand-slam in doubles as well as singles.
Court of High Commission See Court of High Commission
courtly love Late-medieval code that prescribed the highly conven¬ tionalized behaviour and emotions of aristocratic ladies and their lovers. It was the theme of an extensive literature that began with late 11th- century troubadour poetry in France and swiftly pervaded Europe. The courtly lover, who saw himself as enslaved by passion but fired by respect, faithfully served and worshiped his lady-saint. Courtly love was invari-
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476 I court-martial ► coverture
ably adulterous, largely because upper-class marriage at the time was usually the result of economic interest or the seal of a power alliance. Its literary sources are believed to be found in Arabic literature, transmitted to Europe through Arab-dominated Spain; the growing religious cult of Mary was another influence. Examples of works inspired by the ideal are the Roman de la rose, Petrarch’s sonnets to Laura, Dante’s Divine Com¬ edy, and the lyrics of the trouveres and minnesingers. See also chivalry.
court-martial Military court for hearing charges brought against mem¬ bers of the armed forces or others within its jurisdiction; also, the legal proceeding of such a court. Most countries today have military codes of justice administered by military courts, often subject to civilian appellate review. Courts-martial are generally convened as ad hoc courts to try one or more cases referred by some high military authority. The convening officer chooses officers, and sometimes enlisted personnel, from his or her command to sit on the court, determine guilt or innocence, and hand down sentences. See also military law.