creativity Ability to produce something new through imaginative skill, whether a new solution to a problem, a new method or device, or a new artistic object or form. The term generally refers to a richness of ideas and originality of thinking. Psychological studies of highly creative people have shown that many have a strong interest in apparent disorder, con¬ tradiction, and imbalance, which seem to be perceived as challenges. Such individuals may possess an exceptionally deep, broad, and flexible aware¬ ness of themselves. Studies also show that intelligence has little correla¬ tion with creativity; thus, a highly intelligent person may not be very creative. See also genius; gifted child.
Crecy \kra-'se. Battle of (August 26, 1346) English victory in the first phase of the Hundred Years' War against the French. At Crecy-en- Ponthieu, Edward III of England defeated Philip VI of France, even though the English forces were greatly outnumbered. The English gained the advantage because their archers were armed with longbows and because of their strong defensive position.
credit Transaction between two parties in which one (the creditor or lender) supplies money, goods, services, or securities in return for a prom¬ ised future payment by the other (the debtor or borrower). Such transac¬ tions normally include the payment of interest to the lender. Credit may be extended by public or private institutions to finance business activities, agricultural operations, consumer expenditures, or government projects. Large sums of credit are usually extended through specialized financial institutions such as commercial banks or through government lending pro¬ grams.
credit bureau Organization that provides information to merchants or other businesses concerning the creditworthiness of their customers. Credit bureaus may be private enterprises or may be operated on a coop¬ erative basis by the merchants in one locality. Users of the service pay a fee and receive information from various sources, including businesses that have granted the customer credit in the past, public records, news¬ papers, the customer’s employment record, and direct investigation.
credit card Small card that authorizes the person named on it to charge goods or services to his or her account. It differs from a debit card, with which money is automatically deducted from the bank account of the cardholder to pay for the goods or services. Credit-card use originated in the U.S. in the 1920s; early credit cards were issued by various firms (e.g., oil companies and hotel chains) for use at their outlets only. The first uni¬ versal credit card, accepted by a variety of establishments, was issued by Diners’ Club in 1950. Charge cards such as American Express require card¬ holders to pay for all purchases at the end of the billing period (usually monthly). Bank cards such as MasterCard and Visa allow customers to pay only a portion of their bill; interest accrues on the unpaid balance. Credit-card companies get revenue from annual fees and interest paid by cardholders and from fees paid by participating merchants.
Credit Mobilier Vkred-it-mo-'bel-yorA French \kra-'de- l m6-bel- , ya\ scandal (1872 -73) Illegal manipulation of construction contracts for the Union Pacific Railroad that became a symbol of corruption after the Ameri¬ can Civil War. The railroad’s major stockholders created Credit Mobilier of America to divert its construction profits and gave or sold stock to influential politicians in return for favours. A newspaper exposed the scheme in 1872, and after a Congressional investigation two members of the House of Representatives were censured.
credit union Credit cooperative formed by a group of people with some common bond who, in effect, save their money together and make low-
Leeds creamware teapot decorated with green enameling and pierced work, Yorkshire, England, late 18th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London
COURTESY OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
482 I creditor ► Cressent
cost loans to each other. The loans are usually short-term consumer loans, mainly for automobiles, household needs, medical debts, and emergen¬ cies. Credit unions generally operate under government charter and super¬ vision. They are particularly important in less developed countries, where they may be the only source of credit for their members. The first coop¬ erative societies providing credit were founded in Germany and Italy in the mid-19th century; the first North American credit unions were founded by Alphonse Desjardins in Levis, Quebec (1900), and Manchester, N.H. (1909). The Credit Union National Association (CUNA), a federation of U.S. credit unions, was established in 1934 and became a worldwide association in 1958.
creditor See debtor and creditor
Cree One of the major ALGONQUiAN-speaking Indian peoples of Canada living mainly in Saskatchewan and Alberta. The name is a truncated form of the name “Kristineaux,” the French traders’ version of the self-name of the James Bay band. The Cree formerly occupied an immense area from western Quebec to eastern Alberta. They acquired firearms and engaged in the fur trade with Europeans beginning in the 17th century. There were two major divisions: the Woodland Cree, whose culture was essentially an Eastern Woodlands type, and the Plains Cree, bison hunt¬ ers of the northern Great Plains (see Plains Indian). Social organization in both groups was based on local bands. Among the Woodland Cree, ritu¬ als and taboos relating to the spirits of game animals were pervasive, as was fear of witchcraft. Among the more militant Plains Cree, rites intended to foster success in warfare and the bison hunt were common. Some 600,000 Canadians claim some portion of Cree ancestry, and about 2,500 individuals claimed sole Cree descent in the 2000 U.S. census.
creed Officially authorized, usually brief statement of the essential articles of faith of a religious community, often used in public worship or initiation rites. Creeds are most numerous in Western traditions. In Islam the shahada declares that only God is God and Muhammad is his prophet. In Judaism early creeds are preserved in Hebrew scripture, and later creeds include the Thirteen Principles of Faith. In Christianity the Nicene Creed was formulated in ad 381 to exclude Arianism, and the Apostles’ Creed was drafted in the 8th century from earlier baptismal creeds. Buddhism, Zoro¬ astrianism, and modern movements of Hinduism also possess creeds; in other religions faith is confessed chiefly through liturgical expressions.
Creek or Muscogee MusKOGEAN-speaking North American Indian people living mainly in Oklahoma,
U.S., but also in Georgia and Ala¬ bama. A loose and shifting confed¬ eration of groups that once occupied much of the Georgia and Alabama flatlands, the Creek comprised two major divisions: the Upper Creeks (living on the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers) and the Lower Creeks (living on the Chatahootchee and Flint riv¬ ers). They cultivated corn, beans, and squash. Each Creek town had a plaza or community square, often with a temple, around which were built the rectangular houses. Reli¬ gious observances included the Busk (Green Corn) ceremony, an annual first-fruits and new-fire rite. In the 18th century a Creek Confederacy— including the Natchez, Yuchi, Shaw¬ nee, and others—was organized to present a united front against both European and Indian enemies. It proved a failure, however, since at no time did all groups contribute war¬ riors to a common battle. The Creek War against the U.S. (1813-14) ended with the defeated Creeks ceding 23 million acres. Most were forcibly removed to Indian Territory (Okla¬ homa). Some 40,200 individuals claimed sole Creek ancestry in the 2000 U.S. census.
creep Slow change in the dimensions of a material from prolonged stress. Most common metals exhibit creep behaviour. In the creep test, loads below those that ordinarily cause plastic flow or fracture are applied to
the material, and the deformation over a period of time (creep strain) under constant load is measured, usually with an extensometer or strain gauge. Time to failure is also measured against stress. Once creep strain versus time is plotted, various mathematical techniques are available for extrapo¬ lating creep behaviour beyond the test times; thus, designers can use thousand-hour test data, for example, to predict ten-thousand-hour behav¬ iour. See also testing machine.