31, 1735, Caen, France—d. Nov. 12,
1813, Sarcelles) French-U.S. writer and naturalist. He traveled to the New World in 1755 as an officer and mapmaker and became a farmer, then served as French consul for many years. He returned to Europe in 1790. His fame rests on Letters from an American Farmer (1782,
1784, 1790), essays that paint a broad picture of American life. His Travels in Upper Pennsylvania and New York appeared in 1801. Newly discovered essays were published as Sketches of Eighteenth Century America in 1925. In his time he was the most widely read commentator on America.
crib death See sudden infant death syndrome
cribbage Card game, usually for two players, in which each tries to form various counting combinations of cards, the score being kept by moving pegs on a narrow rectangular board. Each player receives six
cards. (There is also a five-card variant, as well as four-hand and three- hand variants.) Cribbage was invented by the 17th-century English poet Sir John Suckling. The rules of play, though somewhat involved, are simple enough to make cribbage a popular pastime, particularly in Britain and the northern U.S. The game usually ends at 121 (twice around the board plus one).
Crichton Vkri-tonV James (b. August 1560, Eliock House, Dumfries, Scot.—d. July 1582, Mantua, Mantua) Scottish scholar and adventurer. After graduating from the University of St. Andrews, he publicly distin¬ guished himself in Europe in learned activities. He entered the service of the duke of Mantua but was slain in a street fight at age 21. Reputedly a fine orator, linguist, debater, and man of letters, he was considered the model of the cultured gentleman, though admirers probably exaggerated his accomplishments. Years later he became known as “the Admirable Crichton.”
Crick, Francis (Harry Compton) (b. June 8, 1916, Northampton, Northamptonshire, Eng.—d. July 28, 2004, San Diego, Calif., U.S.) Brit¬ ish biophysicist. Educated at University College, London, he helped develop magnetic mines for naval use during World War II but returned to biology after the war. He worked at the University of Cambridge with James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins to construct a molecular model of DNA consistent with its physical and chemical properties, work for which the three shared a 1962 Nobel Prize. Crick also discovered that each group of three bases (a codon) on a single DNA strand designates the position of a specific amino acid on the backbone of a protein molecule, and he helped determine which codons code for each amino acid normally found in protein, thus clarifying the way the cell uses DNA to build proteins. See also Rosalind Franklin.
cricket (from Middle French criquet, “goal stake”) Game played by two teams with a ball and bat on a large field centring on two wickets. Each wicket is two sets of three sticks. The teams have 11 players each. A bowler from the defending team throws the ball (with a straight-arm over¬ hand delivery), attempting to hit the wicket, which is one of several ways the batsman may be put out. The team batting fields two batsman at a time, and the batsman being bowled to (the striker) tries to hit the ball away from the wicket. If the batsman hits the ball away from the wicket but has no time to run to the opposite wicket, he need not run; play will resume with another bowl. After a hit, when possible, the striker and the second batsman (the nonstriker) at the other wicket change places. Each time both batsmen can reach the opposite wicket, one run is scored. The batsmen may continue to cross back and forth between the wickets, earn¬ ing an additional run for each time both reach the opposite side. Matches are divided into innings consisting of one turn at bat for each team; depending on pregame agreement, a match may consist of either one or two innings. Cricket’s origins are uncertain, but the first set of rules was written in 1744. During England’s colonial era, cricket was exported to countries around the world.
cricket Any of the approximately 2,400 species of leaping insects (fam¬ ily Gryllidae) known for the musical chirping of the male. Crickets vary in length from around 0.1 to 2 in. (3-50 mm) and have thin antennae, hind legs modified for jumping, and two abdominal sensory appendages (cerci). Their two forewings are stiff and leathery, and the two long, mem¬ branous hind wings are used in flying. Male crickets chirp by rubbing a scraper located on one forewing along a row of 50-250 teeth on the oppo¬ site forewing. The most common cricket songs are the calling song, which attracts the female; the courtship, or mating, song, which induces the female to copulate; and the fighting chirp, which repels other males.
crime the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harm¬ ful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under criminal law. Crimes in the common-law tradition were originally defined primarily by judicial decision. Most common-law crimes are now codified. According to a generally accepted principle, nullum crimen sine lege, there can be no crime without a law. A crime generally consists of both conduct (the actus reus) and a concurrent state of mind (the mens rea). Criminal acts include arson, assault and battery, bribery, burglary, child abuse, counterfeit¬ ing, EMBEZZLEMENT, EXTORTION, FORGERY, FRAUD, HIJACKING, HOMICIDE, KIDNAPPING, PERJURY, PIRACY, RAPE, SEDITION, SMUGGLING, TREASON, THEFT, and USURY. See also
arrest; conspiracy; criminology; felony and misdemeanour; indictment; rights of the accused; self-incrimination; sentence; statute of limitations; war crime.
Crimea \krI-'me-3\ Autonomous republic (pop., 2001: 2,033,700), southern Ukraine. It is coextensive with the Crimean Peninsula, which
Crevasse in the Mozama Glacier on Mount Baker, Washington
BOB AND IRA SPRING
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
484 I Crimean War ► Croatia
extends into the Black Sea. It covers 10,077 sq mi (26,100 sq km); its capital is Simferopol. Early inhabitants were Cimmerians, though the area later was settled by Greeks in the 6th century bc and was ruled by the kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus from the 5th century bc. It became subject to Rome, and part of it later belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Russia annexed Crimea in 1783. It was the scene of the Crimean War (1853-56). In 1921 it became an autonomous republic of the U.S.S.R. During World War II, Nazi armies overran it in 1941; it was retaken by the Soviets in 1944. The area became an oblast of the Ukrainian S.S.R. in 1954. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Crimea obtained partial autonomy from Ukraine.
Crimean War (October 1853-February 1856) War fought mainly in the Crimea between the Russians and an alliance consisting of the Otto¬ man empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia-Piedmont. It arose from the conflict of great powers in the Middle East and was more directly caused by Russian demands to exercise protection over the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman sultan. The war was managed and commanded poorly by both sides. Battles were fought at the Alma River, Balaklava, and Inker- man, before the besieged Sevastopol was taken by the allies. Disease accounted for many of the approximately 250,000 men lost by each side. After Austria threatened to join the allies, Russia accepted preliminary peace terms, which were formalized at the Congress of Paris. The war did not settle the relations of the powers in Eastern Europe, but it did alert Alexander II to the need to modernize Russia.
criminal law Body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders, and fixes pun¬ ishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particu¬ lar crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In the U.S., substantive criminal law originated for the most part in com¬ mon law, which was later codified in federal and state statutes. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, espe¬ cially in the areas of sentencing, legal research, legislation, and rehabili¬ tation. See also criminology.