croquet \kro-'ka\ (French dialect for “crook,” “hockey stick”) Game in which players using mallets drive wooden balls through a series of wick¬ ets, or hoops, set out on a lawn. The object is to be the first to complete the course by passing through all the wickets and hitting a goal peg. Cro¬ quet evolved from the 13th-century French game pall-mall. Champion¬ ship matches are organized by governing bodies in the U.S. and Britain.
Crosby, Bing orig. Harry Lillis Crosby (b. May 3, 1903, Tacoma, Wash., U.S.—d. Oct. 14, 1977, near Madrid, Spain) U.S. singer and actor.
Crosby began to sing and play drums while studying law in Spokane,
Wash. As a singer with the Paul Whiteman orchestra in 1927, he exhibited a mellow “crooning” style and casual stage manner that proved highly popular. He appeared in the early sound film King of Jazz (1931), and he later had his own radio pro¬ gram. By the late 1930s his records had sold millions of copies. His recordings of “White Christmas” and “Silent Night” were among the most popular songs of the 20th century. In the 1940s he starred in a popular radio variety show. His film career included the seven Road comedies with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour, beginning with The Road to Sin¬ gapore (1940); Going My Way (1944, Academy Award); The Bells of St. Mary’s (1945); and White Christmas (1954). More than 300 million of his records have been sold, a total surpassed only by Elvis Presley among solo artists.
cross Principal symbol of Christianity, recalling the crucifixion of Jesus. There are four basic iconogaphic representations: the crux quadrata, or Greek cross, with four equal arms; the crux immissa, or Latin cross, with a base stem longer than the other arms; the crux commissa (St. Anthony’s cross), resembling the Greek letter tau (T); and the crux decussataa (St. Andrew’s cross), resembling the Roman numeral 10 (X). Tradition holds that the crux immissa was used for Christ’s crucifixion. Coptic Christians used the ancient Egyptian ankh. Displaying the cross was not common before Constantine I abolished crucifixion in the 4th century. A crucifix shows Christ’s figure on a cross and is typical of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Making the sign of the cross with the hand may be a profession of faith, prayer, dedication, or benediction. See illustration opposite.
Cross River River, western Africa. Rising in the highlands of Came¬ roon, it flows west and south through Nigeria. Its course, some 300 mi
(485 km) long, runs through dense tropical rainforest and mangrove swamps to the Bight of Biafra. It is navigable through its estuary, which it shares with the Calabar River.
cross section In nuclear physics, a measure of the probability that a given atomic nucleus will exhibit a specific reaction (absorption, scatter¬ ing, or nuclear fission) in relation to a particular incident particle. Cross section is expressed in terms of area, and its value is chosen so that, if the bombarding particle hits a circular target of this size perpendicular to its path and centred at the nucleus, the given reaction occurs. If it misses the area, the reaction does not occur. The unit of cross section is the barn, which equals 10 -24 sq cm. Cross-section values for a given nucleus depend on the energy of the bombarding particle and the kind of reaction and are often different from the actual cross-sectional area of the nucleus.
crossbow Leading missile weapon of the Middle Ages, consisting of a short bow fixed transversely on a stock, with a groove to guide the missile and a trigger to release it. The missile, known as a bolt, was usually an arrow or dart. First used in antiq¬ uity, it was an important advance in warfare. Its destructive power came from its metal bow, which could pro¬ pel a bolt with enough velocity to pierce chain mail and gave it a range of up to 1,000 ft (300 m). Powerful and versatile, it remained in use even after the introduction of the longbow and firearms and was not discarded until the 15 th century. It has been used in modem times to hunt big game.
cross-country running Long-distance running over open country. It developed as a competitive event in the mid-19th century. Though origi¬ nally included in the revived Olympics, it was dropped after 1924 as not suitable for summer competition (most cross-country races are held in the fall or early winter). The first international women’s competition was held in 1967. Standard distances are 12,000 m (7.5 mi) for men, and 2,000- 5,000 m (1.25-3 mi) for women. Though rules for championship compe¬ titions have been established, world records are not kept because of the varying difficulty of courses.
cross-country skiing Skiing in open country over rolling, hilly ter¬ rain. It originated in Scandinavia as a means of travel as well as recre¬ ation. The skies used are longer, narrower, and lighter than those used in Alpine skiing, and bindings allow more heel movement. The standard lengths of international races range from 10 to 50 km (6.2-31 mi) for men and 5 to 30 km (3.1-18.6 mi) for women. It has been included on the Olympics program since the first Winter Olympics in 1924.
cross-fertilization Fusion of male and female sex cells from differ¬ ent individuals of the same species. Cross-fertilization is necessary in ani¬ mal and plant species that have male and female organs on separate individuals. Methods of cross-fertilization are diverse in animals. Among most species that breed in water, the males and females shed their sex cells into the water, where fertilization takes place outside the body. Among land breeders, fertilization is internal, with the sperm being intro¬ duced into the body of the female. By recombining genetic material from
Hh
Greek
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Patriarchal Several traditional types of crosses.
© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.
T
Latin St. Anthony’s St. Andrew’s Celtic
Papal Maltese Russian Jerusalem
Stirrup crossbow, French, 14th century
COURTESY OF THE WEST POINT MUSEUM COLLECTIONS, UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
488 I crossword puzzle ► crucifixion
two parents, cross-fertilization maintains a greater range of variability for natural selection to act on, thereby increasing the capacity of a species to adapt to environmental change. See also self-fertilization.
crossword puzzle Puzzle in which words are filled into a pattern of numbered squares in answer to correspondingly numbered clues and in such a way that words can be read across and down. The first crosswords, intended primarily for children, appeared in England in the 19th century. In the U.S., the puzzle developed into a popular adult pastime. By 1923, crosswords were being published in most of the leading U.S. newspapers, and the craze soon reached England. Today crosswords in various forms are found in almost every country and language.
croton \'kro-t 3 n\ Colourful-leaved plant ( Codiaeum variegatum) of the spurge family. Native to Malaysia and Pacific islands, it is popular as a houseplant. Its numerous varieties grow as shrubs or small trees with bril¬ liant, glossy, leathery leaves that can be solid in colour or occur in com¬ binations of green, yellow, white, orange, pink, red, crimson, and purple. Another plant of the same family but of a different genus is purging cro¬ ton ( Croton tiglium ), a small tree native to Southeast Asia with seeds that yield croton oil.