(1836) and Oliver Twist (1838). In later life he embraced the cause of temperance with his series The Bottle (1847) and The Drunkard’s Children (1848).
Cruise, Tom orig. Thomas Cruise Mapother IV (b. July 3,
1962, Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. actor. He made his screen debut in 1981 and rose to stardom as the leading man in Risky Business (1983) and Top Gun (1986). He received acclaim for his dramatic roles in The Color of Money (1986), Rain Man (1988), Born on the Fourth of July (1989), and Magnolia (1999). His other films include A Few Good Men (1992), Mission: Impossible (1996), Jerry Maguire (1996), Stanley Kubrick’s Eyes Wide Shut (1999), and Steven Spielberg’s Minority Report (2002).
cruise missile Type of low-flying strategic guided missile developed by the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the 1960s and ’70s. The V-l missile was a precursor. Powered by jet engines, cruise missiles may carry either a nuclear or a conventional warhead. They are designed to hug the ground, which makes them hard to detect by radar. They are launched from ships, submarines, airplanes, and the ground.
cruiser Warship built for high speed and great cruising radius, smaller than a battleship but larger than a destroyer. The term originally meant frig¬ ates of the sailing era, used to scout for enemy fleets and raid convoys. After 1880, it was a specific type of armoured warship. By World War II, cruisers served mainly as floating bases for amphibious assaults and as protection for aircraft-carrier task forces. Today U.S. cruisers carry surface-to-air missiles vital to a fleet’s air-defense screen. Nuclear pro¬ pulsion has given some cruisers virtually unlimited range.
Crumb, George (Henry) (b. Oct. 24, 1929, Charleston, W.Va., U.S.) U.S. composer. Born to musician parents, he studied at the University of Michigan and from 1965 taught at the University of Pennsylvania. His style is known particularly for its unusual and hauntingly evocative tim¬ bres. Echoes of Time and the River (1967, Pulitzer Prize) and Ancient Voices of Children (1970) brought him wide fame. His other works include Madrigals, Books 1-TV (1965-70), Night of the Four Moons (1969), Black Angels (1970), Makrokosmos I and 7/(1972, 1973), and Star-Child (1977).
Crumb, R(obert) (b. Aug. 20, 1943, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.) U.S. car¬ toonist. He had no formal art training but was obsessed with drawing as a child. In 1960 he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, to work for a greeting-card company. In 1967 he moved to San Francisco and became a prominent member of the hippie counterculture and a founder of the genre of under¬ ground “comix,” satirical magazines that poked fun at U.S. culture. His often obscene strips with their various obsessive themes, starring such characters as Fritz the Cat, the Furry Freak Brothers, and Mr. Natural, had great influence and are still regarded as classics of the genre.
Crusade, Children's See Children's Crusade Crusade, Stedinger See Stedinger Crusade
crusader states Former territories on the Palestine coast taken by the Christian army during the first of the Crusades. The states were established as the kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1187), the principality of Antioch (1098-1268), the county of Edessa (1098-1144), and the county of Tripoli (1109-1289). Threats to the states led the pope to call for future crusades.
Crusades Military expeditions, beginning in the late 11th century, that were organized by Western Christians in response to centuries of Muslim wars of expansion. Their objectives were to check the spread of Islam, to retake control of the Holy Land, to conquer pagan areas, and to recap¬ ture formerly Christian territories. The Crusades were seen by many of their participants as a means of redemption and expiation for sins. Between 1095, when the First Crusade was launched by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, and 1291, when the Latin Christians were finally expelled from their kingdom in Syria, there were numerous expeditions to the Holy Land, to Spain, and even to the Baltic; the Crusades contin¬ ued for several centuries after 1291, usually as military campaigns intended to halt or slow the advance of Muslim power or to conquer pagan areas. The Crusaders initially enjoyed success, founding a Christian state in Palestine and Syria, but the continued growth of Islamic states ulti¬ mately reversed those gains. By the 14th century the Ottoman Turks had established themselves in the Balkans and would penetrate deeper into Europe despite repeated efforts to repulse them. Crusades were also called against heretics (the Albigensian Crusade, 1209-29) and various rivals of the popes, and the Fourth Crusade (1202-04) was diverted against the Byzantine Empire. Crusading declined rapidly during the 16th century with the advent of the Protestant Reformation and the decline of papal authority. The Crusades constitute a controversial chapter in the history of Christianity, and their excesses have been the subject of centuries of historiography. Historians have also concentrated on the role the Crusades played in the expansion of medieval Europe and its institutions, and the notion of “crusading” has been transformed from a religio-military cam¬ paign into a modern metaphor for zealous and demanding struggles to advance the good (“crusades for”) and to oppose perceived evil (“cru¬ sades against”).
crush injury Effects of compression of the body (e.g., in a building collapse). Victims with severe chest and abdominal injuries usually die before help arrives. In survivors, pulse and blood pressure are usually normal at first, then blood leakage from ruptured vessels causes shock and local swelling, and blood pressure falls. Release of proteins from crushed muscles can cause kidney failure a day or two afterwards. Later, embolisms form from fat droplets that have merged after being squeezed out of fat cells and bone marrow.
crust Outermost solid part of the Earth, essentially composed of a range of igneous and metamorphic rock types. In continental regions, the crust is made up chiefly of granitic rock, whereas the composition of the ocean floor corresponds mainly to that of basalt and gabbro. On average, the crust extends 22 mi (35 km) downward from the surface to the underlying mantle, from which it is separated by the Mohorovicic discontinuity (the Moho). The crust and top layer of the mantle together form the lithosphere.
crustacean Xkros-'ta-shonN Any member of the 45,000 arthropod spe¬ cies in the subphylum Crustacea. Distributed worldwide, crustaceans are distinguished by having two pairs of antenna-like appendages in front of the mouth and other paired appendages near the mouth that act like jaws. Most species are marine, including shrimps and barnacles. Some, includ¬ ing CRAYFiSHes, live in freshwater habitats; others (e.g., sand fleas, land crabs, and sow bugs) live in moist terrestrial environments. The typical adult body is composed of a series of segments (somites) either fused or linked to each other by flexible areas that form movable joints. The cara¬ pace (shell) varies in thickness among species and must be periodically molted to allow growth. Many species of marine crustaceans are scaven¬ gers, and many (including copepods and krill) are significant components of the diets of larger organisms. See also decapod.
Cruveilhier \knE-ve-'ya\, Jean (b. Feb. 9, 1791, Limoges, Fr.—d. March 10, 1874, Sussac) French pathologist and anatomist. He published a series of multivolume works on the anatomy of disease. The greatest, the beautifully illustrated Pathological Anatomy of the Human Body (2 vol., 1829-42), contains the first description of multiple sclerosis, depictions of gastric ulcer, and an early account of progressive muscular atrophy.
Cruz \krus\, Celia (b. Oct. 21, c. 1929, Havana, Cuba—d. July 16,2003, Fort Lee, N.J., U.S.) Cuban-born U.S. singer. She was studying to become a teacher in her native Havana when she won a talent show, after which she began to pursue a singing career. In the early 1950s she became lead singer with the popular orchestra La Sonora Matancera, often headlining at the famous Tropicana nightclub. After Cuba’s revolution of 1959, the orchestra moved to Mexico and later to the U.S. In 1962 Cruz married its first trumpet player, Pedro Knight, who became her manager after she