deconstruction Method of philosophical and literary analysis, derived mainly from the work of Jacques Derrida, that questions the fundamental conceptual distinctions, or “oppositions,” in Western philosophy through a close examination of the language and logic of philosophical and liter¬ ary texts. Such oppositions are characteristically “binary” and “hierarchi¬ cal,” involving a pair of terms in which one member of the pair is assumed to be primary or fundamental, the other secondary or derivative; examples include nature/culture, speech/writing, and mind/body. To “deconstruct” an opposition is to explore the tensions and contradictions between the hierarchical ordering assumed in the text and other aspects of the text’s meaning, especially its figurative or performative aspects. The decon¬ struction “displaces” the opposition by showing that neither term is pri¬ mary; the opposition is a product, or “construction,” of the text rather than something given independently of it. The speech/writing opposition, according to which speech is “present” to the speaker or author and writ¬ ing “absent,” is a manifestation of what Derrida calls the “logocentrism” of Western culture—i.e., the general assumption that there is a realm of “truth” existing prior to and independent of its representation by linguis¬ tic signs. In polemical discussions about intellectual trends of the late 20th century, deconstruction was sometimes used pejoratively to suggest nihil¬ ism and frivolous skepticism. In popular usage the term has come to mean a critical dismantling of tradition and traditional modes of thought. See also postmodernism; poststructuralism.
Decoration Day See Memorial Day
decorative arts Arts concerned with the design and decoration of objects that are utilitarian rather than purely aesthetic, including ceramics, glassware, basketry, jewelry, metalwork, furniture, and textiles. The separa¬ tion of the decorative arts from the fine arts is a modern distinction.
deduction In logic, a type of inference or argument that purports to be valid, where a valid argument is one whose conclusion must be true if its premises are true (see validity). Deduction is thus distinguished from induc¬ tion, where there is no such presumption. Valid deductive arguments may have false premises, as demonstrated by the example: “All men are mor¬ tal; Cleopatra is a man; therefore, Cleopatra is mortal.” Invalid deductive arguments sometimes embody formal fallacies (i.e., errors of reasoning based on the structure of the propositions in the argument); an example is “affirming the consequent”: “If A then B; B; therefore, A” (see fallacy; FORMAL AND INFORMAL).
deed See escrow
Deep Blue Computer chess-playing system designed by IBM. In 1996 Deep Blue made history by defeating Garry Kasparov in one of their six games—the first time a computer had won a game against a world cham¬ pion under tournament conditions. In the 1997 rematch, it won the decid¬ ing sixth game in only 19 moves; its 3.5-2.5 victory (it won two games and had three draws) marked the first time a current world champion had lost a match to a computer under tournament conditions. In its final con¬ figuration, the IBM RS6000/SP computer used 256 processors working in tandem, with an ability to evaluate 200 million chess positions per sec¬ ond.
deep-sea trench or oceanic trench Any long, narrow, steep-sided depression in the ocean bottom in which maximum oceanic depths (24,000-36,000 ft, or 7,000-11,000 m) occur. The deepest known depres¬
sion of this kind is the Mariana Trench. Most trenches occur at subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is thrust under another.
deep-sea vent Hydrothermal (hot-water) vent formed on the ocean floor when seawater circulates through hot volcanic rocks, often located where new oceanic crust is being formed. Vents also occur on submarine volcanoes. In either case, the hot solution emerging into cold seawater precipitates mineral deposits that are rich in iron, copper, zinc, and other metals. Outflow of these heated waters probably accounts for 20% of the Earth’s heat loss. Exotic biological communities are now known to exist around the vents; these ecosystems are totally independent of energy from the Sun, depending not on photosynthesis but rather on chemosynthesis by sulfur-fixing bacteria.
deer Any of the ruminants in the family Cervidae, which have two large and two small hooves on each foot and antlers on the males of most spe¬ cies and on the females of some species. Deer live mainly in forests but may be found in deserts, tundra, and swamps and on high mountainsides. They are native to Europe, Asia, North America, South America, and northern Africa and have been introduced widely elsewhere. Females are usually called does, and males bucks. Deer range in shoulder height from the 12-in. (30-cm) pudu (genus Pudu ) to the 6.5-ft (2-m) moose. They typically have a compact body, short tail, and long, slender ears. They shed their antlers each year, and new ones grow in. The general form of the antler varies among species. Deer feed on grass, twigs, bark, and shoots. They are hunted for their meat, hides, and antlers. See also cari¬ bou, ELK, MULE DEER, MUNTJAC, RED DEER, ROE DEER, WHITE-TAILED DEER.
Rival European red deer stags (Cervus elaphus) fighting for possession of a hind in the rutting season.
STEFAN MEYERS GDT/ARDEA LONDON
deer mouse or white-footed mouse Any of about 60 species (genus Peromyscus, family Cricetidae) of small, delicate rodents that are active at night and are found in habitats from Alaska to South America. They often outnumber all other mammals in an area. Deer mice are 3-6.5 in. (8-17 cm) long (excluding the long tail) and have large eyes, soft fur, and relatively large ears. Colours range from white to brown or blackish, with white underparts and feet. They eat plant and animal matter and nest in burrows or trees. Clean, easily cared for, and prolific, they are often used as laboratory animals.
Deere, John (b. Feb. 7. 1804, Rutland, Vt„ U.S.—d. May 17, 1886, Moline, Ill.) U.S. inventor and manufacturer of agricultural implements. He was apprenticed to a blacksmith and later set up his own smithy and moved to Illinois. There he found, through the frequent repairs he had to make, that wood and cast-iron plows, used in the eastern U.S. from the 1820s, were unsuited to the heavy, sticky prairie soils. By 1838 he had sold three steel plows of his own design; by 1846 he had sold about 1,000, and by 1857 10,000. In 1868 Deere & Co. was incorporated, and it went on to become the largest U.S. manufacturer of farm machinery.
defamation In law, issuance of false statements about a person that injure his reputation or that deter others from associating with him. Libel and slander are the legal subcategories of defamation. Libel is defama-
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526 I defecation ► Degas
tion in print, pictures, or any other visual symbols. A libel plaintiff must generally establish that the alleged libel refers to him or her specifically, that it was published to others (third parties), and that some injury occurred as a result. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that public per¬ sons (e.g., celebrities or politicians) alleging libel may recover damages only if they prove that the statement in question was made with “actual malice”—i.e., with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard for the truth (New York Times v. Sullivan, 1964). Slander is defamation by oral communication. An action for slander may be brought without alleging and proving special injury if the statement has a plainly harmful character, as by imputing to the plaintiff criminal guilt, serious sexual misconduct, or a characteristic negatively affecting his business or pro¬ fession. The defense in defamation cases often takes the form of seeking to establish the truth of the statements in question.