Almagest Val-mo-jestN Astronomical and mathematical encyclopedia compiled c. ad 140 by Ptolemy. It served as the basic guide for Arab and European astronomers until the 17th century. The name derives from the Arabic for “the greatest.” Its 13 books cover such topics as the geocen¬ tric (Earth-centred), or Ptolemaic, model of the solar system; eclipses; the coordinates and sizes of certain fixed stars; and the distances to the Sun and the Moon.
Almagro \al-'ma-gro\, Diego de (b. 1475, Almagro, Castile—d. 1538, Cuzco, Peru) Spanish soldier who played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Following service in the Spanish navy, he arrived in South America in 1524 and, with Francisco Pizarro, led the expedition that conquered the Inca empire in what is now Peru. Bitter enmity arose between the two men, and Almagro imprisoned Pizarro’s two brothers for insubordination during an Indian rebellion. Pizarro then defeated Almagro’s army and had his former friend put to death.
almanac Book or table containing a calendar of a given year, with a record of various astronomical phenomena, often with weather prognos¬ tications, seasonal suggestions for farmers, and other information. The first printed almanac appeared in the mid 15th century. Benjamin Franklin began his famous Poor Richard’s almanacs in 1732. A form of folk lit¬ erature, 18th-century almanacs furnished useful and entertaining infor¬ mation where reading matter was scarce; a surviving example is the Old Farmer’s Almanac. Modern almanacs are often annual publications con¬ taining statistical, tabular, and general information.
Alma-Tadema Val-mo-'ta-do-moV, Sir Lawrence (b. Jan. 8, 1836, Dronrijp, Neth.—d. June 25, 1912, Wiesbaden, Ger.) Dutch-British painter. After studies at the Antwerp Academy, he visited Italy (1863) and became enamoured of Greco-Roman antiquity and Egyptian archaeology; the ancient world was to provide his primary themes. After settling in London in 1870, he excelled at the accurate re-creation of ancient scenes, exotic costumes, and the sensuous depiction of beautiful women against backgrounds of marble, bronze, and silk. Such figurative images com¬ bined sentimentality and anecdote. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1879 and knighted in 1899. Alma-Tadema’s work was immensely popular in his day, but it went out of favour after his death.
Almaty Xol-'ma-t e\formerly Alma-Ata W-'ma-o-'taV City (pop., 1999: 1,129,400), southeastern Kazakhstan. Formerly the capital of Kazakhstan, it lost its capital status in 1995 to Aqmola (now Astana). The modern city
Allspice (Pimento diocia)
J.E. CRUISE
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52 I Almendros ► Alsace-Lorraine
was founded in 1854, when the Russians established a military fortifica¬ tion on the site of the ancient city of Almaty, destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century. With the coming of the railroad in 1930, its popula¬ tion grew rapidly. In World War II (1939-45), heavy industry expanded widely as factories were evacuated to the site from European Russia. The city remains a major industrial centre.
Almendros \al-'men-dros\ / Nestor (b. Oct. 30, 1930, Barcelona, Spain—d. March 4, 1992, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Spanish cinematogra¬ pher. In 1948 he emigrated from Spain to Cuba, where he worked with documentary filmmakers. After moving to France in 1961, he collaborated with Eric Rohmer on My Night at Maud’s (1969) and Claire’s Knee (1970), and with Francois Truffaut on The Wild Child (1970). His work in the U.S. includes Sophie’s Choice (1982), and Billy Bathgate (1991).
Almohad \'al-mo- I had\ dynasty Arabic al-Muwahhidun ("Uni¬ tarians") (1130-1269) Berber confederation born out of religious oppo¬ sition to the Islamic doctrines of the Almoravid dynasty. The Almohad leader Ibn Tumart began his rebellion in the 1120s. Marrakech was cap¬ tured in 1147 under the leadership of his successor ‘Abd al-Mu’min. By the 1170s all of the Maghrib was under unified control for the only time in its history, and the Almohads also controlled Muslim Spain. Their rule was marked by, on the one hand, the cultivation of science and philoso¬ phy and, on the other, efforts at religious unification by compelling Jews and Christians to convert or emigrate. They lost control of Spain to the Christians in 1212 and of their North African provinces to the Hafsid dynasty in Tunis (1236) and the Marinids in Marrakech (1269).
almond Tree ( Prunus dulcis) in the rose family, native to South Asia; also its edible seed, or nut. The tree, growing somewhat larger and living longer than the peach, is strikingly beautiful when in flower. The nuts are either sweet or bitter. Sweet almonds are the edible type consumed as nuts and used in cooking. The extracted oil of bitter almonds is used to make flavouring extracts for foods and liqueurs. Almonds provide small amounts of protein, iron, calcium, phosphorus, and B vitamins and are high in fat. They are commonly used in confectionery baking and in marzipan, a traditional European candy.
Almoravid V.al-mo-'ra-vodX dynasty Arabic al-Murabitun (1056- 1147) Berber confederation that succeeded the Fajimid dynasty in the Magh¬ rib. It flourished in the 11th and early 12th centuries. Its founder, c Abd Allah ibn Yasln, was a Muslim scholar of the Malik! school who used religious reform as a means of gaining followers in the mid-11th century. The Almoravids took over Morocco and then the rest of the Maghrib fol¬ lowing the decline of the Zlrid dynasty. By 1082 they ruled Algiers. By 1110 they also controlled Muslim Spain, but the Christians began to win back territory in 1118. In the 1120s another Berber coalition, the Almo¬ hads, started a rebellion, eventually displacing the Almoravids.
aloe Any shrubby succulent plant of the genus Aloe, in the lily family. Native to Africa, most of the 200 or so species have a rosette of leaves at the base but no stem. Several are cultivated as ornamentals. The juice of some species, especially the popular potted plant known as true aloe {Aloe vera), is used as an ingredient in cosmetics, as a purgative, and as a treat¬ ment for bums.
aloe, American See century plant
Alonso, Alicia orig. Alicia Martinez Hoyo (b. Dec. 21, 1921, Havana, Cuba) Cuban ballerina, choreographer, and director. She studied in Havana and New York, where she danced with Ballet Theatre (later American Ballet Theatre; 1940-41, 1943^18, 1950-55, 1958-59). In 1948 she formed her own company, Ballet Alicia Alonso (renamed Ballet Nacional de Cuba in 1959), with which she performed frequently on tour in Latin America. Despite failing eyesight, she continued for many years to dance leading roles as a guest artist with American Ballet Theatre and other companies.
alpaca \al-'pa-k3\ South American species {Lama pacos ) in the camel family (Camelidae). The alpaca, guanaco, llama, and vicuna are closely related and are known collectively as lamoids. Domesticated several thou¬ sand years ago by Indians of the Andes Mountains, the alpaca has a slen¬ der body, a long neck and legs, a small head, a short tail, and large, pointed ears. Alpacas stand about 35 in. (90 cm) at the shoulder and weigh 120- 145 lbs (54-65 kg). They are found in central and southern Peru and western Bolivia, on marshy ground at high altitudes. They are the most important of the lamoids for wool production.
Alp-Arslan Valp-ar-'slan\ (b. c. 1030—d. November? 1072/January 1073) Second sultan of the Seljuq dynasty, who added Georgia, Armenia, and much of Anatolia to his domains of Khorasan and western Iran. He preferred conquest to governing and left the administration of his empire to his famous vizier, Nizam al-Mulk. In 1071 his victory over the Byzan¬ tine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert opened the door for the eventual Turkish conquest of Anatolia. He died a year later when mortally wounded by a prisoner during a quarrel.