direct current (DC) Flow of electric charge that does not change direc¬ tion. Direct current is produced by batteries, fuel cells, rectifiers, and gen¬ erators with commutators. Direct current was supplanted by alternating current (AC) for common commercial power in the late 1880s because it was then uneconomical to transform it to the high voltages needed for long-distance transmission. Techniques developed in the 1960s overcame this obstacle, and direct current is now transmitted over very long dis¬ tances, though it must ordinarily be converted to alternating current for final distribution. For some uses, such as electroplating, direct current is essential.
direct-mail marketing Method of merchandising in which the sell¬ er’s offer is made through mass mailing of a circular or catalog or through a newspaper or magazine advertisement, and in which the buyer places an order by mail, telephone, or Internet. The rise of retail mail-order sell-
Eurasian dipper (Cinclus cinclus)
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directing ► Disney I 551
ing occurred in the late 19th century, when U.S. firms such as Sears, Roe¬ buck and Montgomery Ward built large businesses selling goods primarily to farmers. Its use has grown steadily since the introduction of comput¬ erized mailing lists after 1960; it is now employed by tens of thousands of firms, and it reaches virtually every consumer in the U.S.
directing Art of coordinating and controlling all elements in the stag¬ ing of a play or making of a film. Until the late 19th century, a theatrical director was usually the play’s leading actor or the company’s actor- manager. Today’s stage director combines elements such as actors, decor, costumes, and lighting to shape an imaginative interpretation of the play¬ wright’s script. The director must understand the art of acting and pro¬ vide guidance for the actors. The director also composes the “stage pictures,” the shifting arrangements of the actors and other elements on the stage. The film director combines the theatrical director’s responsi¬ bilities with the technical functions of cinematography, editing, and sound recording. See also actor-manager system; auteur theory.
Directoire style \de-rek-'twar\ Style of dress, furniture, and ornament popular in France during the Directory, 1795-99. Dress for men mixed the ancient and contemporary: high boots, vests, open coats, top hats. Women’s fashions featured dresses with long sleeves and V necklines, worn with ruffled caps. Directoire furniture and ornamentation were based on ancient Roman objects recently excavated at Pompeii.
Directory French Directoire \de-rek-'twar\ (1795-99) Government set up during the French Revolution by the Constitution of 1795. Legis¬ lative power was placed in the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients, while executive power was placed in a five-member Direc¬ tory. Though the Directors nominally inherited many of the powers of the Committee of Public Safety, they had no funds to finance their projects or courts to enforce their will. The regime was marked by administrative chaos and corruption and by the uprisings in the Vendee. It was overthrown in Napoleon’s Coup of 18-19 Brumaire.
dirigible See airship
Dirksen Vdork-sonX, Everett McKinley (b. Jan. 4, 1896, Pekin, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 7, 1969, Washington, D.C.) U.S. politician. After serving in World War I, he returned to Illinois to pursue business interests. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1932—48), where he voted against most New Deal measures and remained an isolationist until the U.S. entered World War II. He later served in the U.S. Senate (1950-69), becoming minority leader in 1959. He was noted for his oratorical style. Though a conservative, he helped secure passage of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the Civil Rights Act, and the Voting Rights Act.
dirty sandstone See graywacke
disarmament Reduction in armaments by one or more nations. Arms reductions may be imposed by a war’s victors on the defeated (as hap¬ pened after Germany’s defeat in World War I). Bilateral disarmament agreements may apply to a specific area (such an agreement has kept the Great Lakes weapon-free since 1817). The term is most commonly used for multilateral reduction and limitation agreements, particularly in the context of nuclear weapons. See also arms control.
disc jockey (DJ) Person who plays recorded music on radio or tele¬ vision or at a nightclub or other live venue. Disc jockey programs became the economic base of many radio stations in the U.S. after World War II. The format generally involves one person, the disc jockey, introducing and playing phonograph records and chatting informally, usually extem¬ poraneously, in the intervals. Because popular DJs are in a position to influence public tastes, record companies have sometimes attempted to bribe them with money and gifts, known as “payola.”
Disciples of Christ Group of U.S. Protestant churches that originated in the frontier revivals of the early 19th century. Movements founded by Thomas and Alexander Campbell (1763-1854, 1788-1866) and Barton W. Stone (1772-1844) merged in 1832 and took the name Disciples of Christ. The new denomination grew rapidly. Its goal was to unite all Prot¬ estants on the basis of New Testament practices. The attempt failed, and the movement itself split into two major segments: the more conservative Churches of Christ (which rejects any innovation without New Testament precedent, including musical instruments in worship) and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Other conservative congregations separated from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in the 1920s; they estab¬ lished a separate annual gathering, the North American Christian Con¬
vention, in 1927. In 1985 the Disciples of Christ entered into an ecumenical partnership with the United Church of Christ. The common Disciples heritage is still manifest in the meetings of the World Conven¬ tion of Churches of Christ, organized in 1930.
disco Style of dance music that arose in the mid-1970s, characterized by hypnotic rhythm, repetitive lyrics, and electronically produced sounds. Disco (short for discotheque) evolved largely from New York City under¬ ground nightclubs, in which disc jockeys would play dance records for hours without interruption, taking care to synchronize the beats so as to make a seamless change between records. Artists such as Donna Summer, Chic, and the Bee Gees had many hits in the genre, which peaked with the release of the film Saturday Night Fever (1977). Disco faded quickly after 1980, but its powerful influence, especially its sequenced electronic beats, still continues to affect much of pop music.
discount rate or bank rate Interest rate charged by a central bank for loans of reserve funds to commercial banks and other financial inter¬ mediaries. The discount rate is one important indicator of the condition of monetary policy in an economy. Because raising or lowering the dis¬ count rate alters the rates that commercial banks charge on loans, adjust¬ ment of the discount rate is used as a tool to combat recession and inflation.
discovery In law, pretrial procedures providing for the exchange of information between the parties involved. Discovery may be made through interrogatories, written questions sent from one side to the other in an attempt to secure important facts. It also can be made through depo¬ sitions, whereby a witness is sworn and, in the presence of attorneys for both sides, is subjected to questions. (The written record of the proceed¬ ings also is called a deposition.) Other forms of discovery include an order of production and inspection, which compels the opposing party to pro¬ duce relevant documents or other evidence, and requests for medical examination in cases in which a party’s mental or physical condition is at issue.
discus throw Track-and-field sport of hurling for distance a disk¬ shaped object known as a discus. The discus is 8.6 in. (219 mm) in diam¬ eter and is thicker in the centre than at the perimeter; it must weigh at least 4.4 lbs (2 kg) for men’s events, 2.2 lbs (1 kg) for women’s. It is thrown by means of a whirling movement made by the athlete within a circle 8.2 ft (2.5 m) in diameter. The sport dates back to the ancient Greek Olympics.