England, Church of English national church and the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Christianity was brought to England in the
2nd century, and though nearly destroyed by the Anglo-Saxon invasions, it was reestablished after the mission of St. Augustine of Canterbury in 597. Medieval conflicts between church and state culminated in Henry VIII ’s break with Roman Catholicism in the Reformation. When the pope refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the king issued the Act of Supremacy (1534), which declared the English monarch to be head of the Church of England. Under Henry’s successor, Edward VI, more Protestant reforms were instituted. After a five-year Catholic reaction under Mary I, Elizabeth I ascended the throne (1558), and the Church of England was reestablished. The Book of Common Prayer (1549) and the Thirty-nine Articles (1571) became the standards for liturgy and doctrine. The rise of Puritanism in the 17th century led to the English Civil Wars; during the Commonwealth the Church of England was suppressed, but it was reestablished in 1660. The evangelical movement in the 18th century emphasized the church’s Protestant heritage, while the Oxford movement in the 19th century emphasized its Roman Catholic heritage. The Church of England has maintained an episcopal form of government, and its leader is the archbishop of Canterbury. In 1992 the church voted to ordain women as priests. In the U.S., the Protestant Episcopal Church is descended from and remains associated with the Church of England.
Engle, Robert F. (b. November 1942, Syracuse, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. After graduating from Cornell University (M.S., 1966; Ph.D., 1969), Engle taught at such universities as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the University of California at San Diego and held asso¬ ciate editorships on several academic journals. In the 1970s and ’80s he developed improved mathematical techniques for the evaluation and more-accurate forecasting of risk, which enabled researchers to test if and how volatility in one period was related to volatility in another period. His work had particular relevance in financial market analysis and enabled economists to make more-accurate forecasts. In 2003 he shared the Nobel Prize for Economics with Clive WJ. Granger.
English Channel or the Channel French La Manche \la-'maush\ ("The Sleeve") Strait between southern England and northern France. It connects the Atlantic Ocean with the North Sea through the Strait of Dover. The French name, La Manche (“The Sleeve”), is a reference to its shape, which gradually narrows from about 112 mi (180 km) in the west to only 21 mi (34 km) in the east, between Dover, Eng., and Calais, France. Historically both a route for and a barrier to invaders of Britain, it devel¬ oped into one of the world’s busiest sea routes for oil tankers and ore carriers. The Channel Tunnel, completed in 1994, provides a land route between Paris and London.
English Civil Wars (1642-51) Armed conflict in the British Isles between Parliamentarians and supporters of the monarchy (Royalists). Tension between Charles I and the House of Commons had been building for some time, and after his unsuccessful attempt to arrest five members of Parliament, both sides prepared for war. The first phase of the wars (1642-46) was initially characterized by inconclusive encounters, but vic¬ tories by Parliamentarian forces under Oliver Cromwell at the Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby turned the tide. In 1646 the Royalist forces were disbanded. In 1647 Charles I negotiated with a Scottish group for assistance, starting the second phase of the wars, a series of Royalist rebellions, and a Scottish invasion. All were defeated, and Charles I was executed in 1649. The fighting continued, and Royalist forces under Charles II invaded England in 1651. Parliamentary forces defeated the Royalists at Worcester in 1651 and Charles II fled abroad, effectively end¬ ing the civil wars. The wars’ political consequence was the establishment of the Commonwealth and Protectorate. See also New Model Army, Sol¬ emn League and Covenant.
English East India Co. See East India Co.
English horn Orchestral woodwind instrument, a large oboe pitched a 5th below the ordinary oboe. It has a bent metal crook, to hold the double reed, and a bulbous bell. It is a transposing instrument (its music written in a different tone than it actually sounds) in F. It is neither English nor a horn; in its original name, cor anglais, cor (“horn”) referred to its origi¬ nal hornlike curved shape, but the source of anglais (“English”) is a mys¬ tery. It has remained a basically orchestral instrument since its first appearance c. 1750.
English language Language belonging to the Germanic languages branch of the Indo-European language family, widely spoken on six conti¬ nents. The primary language of the U.S., Britain, Canada, Australia, Ire¬ land, New Zealand, and various Caribbean and Pacific island nations, it is
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English school ► enstatite I 623
also an official language of India, the Philippines, and many sub-Saharan African countries. It is the second most widely spoken native language in the world, the mother tongue of more than 350 million people, the most widely taught foreign language, and the international language of science and business. English relies mainly on word order (usually subject-verb- object) to indicate relationships between words (see syntax). Written in the Latin alphabet, it is most closely related to Frisian, German, and Dutch. Its history began with the migration of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons from Germany and Denmark to Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. The Norman Conquest of 1066 brought many French words into English. Greek and Latin words began to enter it in the 15th century, and Modern English is usually dated from 1500. English easily borrows words from other lan¬ guages and has coined many new words to reflect advances in technology.
English school Dominant school in painting in England from the 18th century to c. 1850. From 1730 to 1750 two distinctive British forms of painting were perfected by William Hogarth: genre scenes depicting the “modem moral subject,” and the small-scale group portrait, or “conver¬ sation piece.” Full-scale portraiture was popularized by Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough; the landscape tradition was founded by Rich¬ ard Wilson; and historical painting was practiced by two American-born painters, Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley. The flowering of English Romantic art was embodied in the landscapes of J.M.W. Turner and John Constable. The art of the period rivaled continental art in qual¬ ity and had great influence on European painting.
The Countess's Morning Levee, oil painting, part of the Marriage a la Mode series by William Hogarth, 1743-45; in the National Gallery, London.
TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY, LONDON
English sparrow See house sparrow
engraving Any of various processes of cutting a design into a plate or block of metal or wood. The cutting is done by a graver, or burin, on a cop¬ per, zinc, aluminum, or magnesium plate, and the design is printed with a roller press from ink rubbed into the incised grooves. Wood engraving derives from the woodcut, but the use of the hard, smooth boxwood, cut with the burin commonly used by the copper-plate engraver, produces a finer, more detailed image. By contrast with engraving from metal plates, the printing of wood engravings is done from the surface of the plate or block; the parts that are not to be printed are cut away. See also etching.
ENIAC Ve-ne-.ak, 'en-e-,ak\ in full Electronic Numerical Integra¬ tor and Computer Early electronic digital computer built in the U.S. in 1945 by J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly. The massive ENIAC, which weighed 30 tons and filled an entire room, used some 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, and 10,000 capacitors. In December 1945 it solved its first problem, calculations for the hydrogen bomb. After its official unveiling in 1946, it was used to prepare artillery-shell trajectory tables and perform other military and scientific calculations.