Statuettes found at Tell Asmar, Early Dynastic II (c. 2775-c. 2650 bc); in the Orien¬ tal Institute, the University of Chicago
COURTESY OF THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
almost nonexistent and caribou, fish, and marine mammals were the major food source. Harpoons and one-person kayaks or larger umiaks were used for hunting on the sea. Clothing was fashioned of caribou furs and seal¬ skins. Snow-block IGLOOS or semisubterranean sod and stone houses were used in winter, while in summer animal-skin tents were erected. Dogsleds were the basic means of land transport. Religion centred on shamanism and the unseen world of spirits. By the late 20th century, snowmobiles and rifles had replaced dogsleds and harpoons. Many Eskimo have aban¬ doned their nomadic hunting pursuits and moved into northern towns and cities. Some have formed cooperatives to market their handicrafts and other wares. The Eskimo (Inuit, Inupiat, Yupik, etc.) peoples number some
177,000.
Eskimo-Aleut \,al-e-'ut\ languages Family of languages spoken in Greenland, Canada, Alaska, U.S., and eastern Siberia by the Eskimo and Aleut peoples. Aleut, distantly related to the Eskimo languages, consists of eastern and western dialects; today both are spoken by fewer than 400 people. The Eskimo languages have two subgroups: Yupik (five lan¬ guages), spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia and in southwest¬ ern Alaska; and Inupiaq-Inuktitut, a continuum of dialects spoken across arctic Alaska and Canada to the coasts of Labrador and Greenland. Yupik languages are spoken today by about 13,000 people, while Inupiaq- Inuktitut has more than 100,000 speakers, nearly half of whom speak Greenlandic Inuktitut.
Eskimo dog Breed of hunting and sled dog found near the Arctic Circle. It is believed by some to be repre¬ sentative of a pure breed 25,000- 50,000 years old and by others to be descended from the wolf. It is pow¬ erfully built and big-boned, and it stands about 20-25 in. (51-64 cm) tall and weighs 65-85 lb (30-39 kg).
Its long, waterproof outer coat, which varies in colour, covers a thick, woolly undercoat. See also SPITZ.
esophagus \i-'sa-f9-g9s\ Muscu¬ lar tube that conveys food by peristal¬ sis from the pharynx to the stomach.
Both ends are closed off by sphincters (muscular constrictions), which relax to let food through and close to keep it from backing up. Disorders include ulceration and bleeding, heartburn from stomach acid, achalasia (failure of one or both sphincters to open), and muscle spasms. Sclero¬ derma may involve the esophagus.
ESP See extrasensory perception
espalier \is-'pal-y9r\ Tree or other plant trained to grow flat against a support (such as a trellis or wall). The term is also used for the support
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Espanol ► Essex Junto I 635
itself, as well as for the method or technique. The technique was devel¬ oped in Europe to encourage fruit-tree production in an incompatible cli¬ mate; it originally used a wall to provide heat as well as support. Decorative or space-saving espaliers use metal, wire, or wooden frames to create ornamental shapes for shrubbery or to train trees on trellises, walls, or fences. Evergreens such as loquat, fire thorn, sweet bay mag¬ nolia, and upright yew, as well as dwarf apple and pear trees, make excel¬ lent espaliers.
Espanol, Pedro See Pedro Berruguete
Espartero \,a-spar-'ta-ro\, Baldomero, prince de Vergara (b.
Oct. 27, 1793, Granatula, Spain—d. Jan. 8, 1879, Logrono) Spanish gen¬ eral and politician. After the accession of Isabella II, he joined the govern¬ ment forces opposed to Don Carlos (see Carlism) and helped win the First Carlist War. He became head of the government in 1840 and was appointed regent in 1841. In 1843 a generals’ revolt forced him to flee to England, where he lived until 1849. He returned to Spain, then shared control of the government (1854-56) with Gen. Leopoldo O’Donnell (1809-67) before returning to retirement.
esparto \is-'par-to\ Either of two species of gray-green needlegrasses (Stipa tenacissima and Lygeum spartum), native to southern Spain and northern Africa, or the fibre produced by esparto. L. spartum grows in rocky soil on the high plains. S. tenacissima flourishes in sandy, iron-rich soils in dry, sunny locations on the seacoast. Esparto fibre has great strength and flexibility; it is used for making ropes, sandals, baskets, mats, and other durable articles. Esparto leaves are used in the manufacture of paper.
Esperanto ^es-po-'ran-toN Artificial language created in 1887 by Laz¬ arus Ludwig Zamenhof (1859-1917), a Polish oculist, for use as an inter¬ national second language. Zamenhof’s Fundamento de Esperanto (1905) outlines its basic principles. All words, derived from roots commonly found in the European languages, are spelled as pronounced, and gram¬ mar is simple and regular. Nouns have no gender and end in -o, and there is only one definite article, la (e.g., la amiko, “the friend”). Adjectives are marked by the ending -a. Verbs are regular and have only one form for each tense or mood. The Universal Esperanto Association (founded 1908) has members in 83 countries. Estimates of the number of Esperanto- speakers range from 100,000 to several million.
espionage Ves-pe-3-,nazh\ Practice of obtaining military, political, commercial, or other secret information by means of spies or illegal moni¬ toring devices. It is sometimes distinguished from the broader category of intelligence gathering by its aggressive nature and its illegality. Coun¬ terespionage efforts are directed at detecting and thwarting espionage by others.
Espiritu Santo formerly Marina Island, northwestern Vanuatu, South Pacific Ocean. Vanuatu’s largest island, Espfritu Santo is 76 mi (122 km) long and 45 mi (72 km) wide and covers 1,420 sq mi (3,677 sq km). Vol¬ canic in origin, it has a mountain range running along its western coast; Mount Tabwemasana rises to 6,165 ft (1,879 m). It is heavily wooded and has broad, fertile, well-watered valleys. Agriculturally developed, its prin¬ cipal settlement is Luganville (Santo) on the southeastern coast.
Esquire U.S. monthly magazine, founded in 1933 by Arnold Gingrich. It began as an oversized magazine for men that featured a sophisticated style and drawings of scantily clad young women. It later abandoned the risque drawings but continued to cultivate the image of affluence and refined taste. It pioneered the treatment of unconventional topics and fea¬ ture stories and attracted a general-interest audience with pieces by well- known writers. In the 1940s, because of its early notoriety, it was the object of an ultimately unsuccessful court case challenging its worthiness for mailing privileges at desirable rates. By the late 20th century, Esquire had lost its literary distinctiveness.
essay Analytic, interpretative, or critical literary composition, usually dealing with its subject from a limited and often personal point of view. Flexible and versatile, the essay was perfected by Michel de Montaigne, who chose the name essai to emphasize that his compositions were “attempts” to express his thoughts and experiences. The essay has been the vehicle of literary and social criticism for some, while for others it could serve semipolitical, nationalistic, or polemical purposes and could have a detached, playful, earnest, or bitter tone.
Essen City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 591,889; metro, area, 5,823,685), North Rhine-Westphalia state, western Germany. Located on the Ruhr River, it is the site of an extensive ironworks and steelworks. It was originally the seat of a convent (founded 852), whose 15th-century cathedral still stands. Essen became a city in the 10th century and was locally sovereign until 1802, when it passed to Prussia. The development of ironworks, steel¬ works, and coal mines stimulated growth in the 19th century. The city was largely destroyed in World War II, when it was targeted by the Allies as a centre of the German war industry. It has since been rebuilt with large, modern buildings, including concert halls, an economic research institute, and an art institute.