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first lady ► fish hawk I 677
first lady Wife of the president of the U.S. Although the first lady’s role has never been codified or officially defined, she figures prominently in the country’s political and social life. Representative of her husband on official and ceremonial occasions both at home and abroad, the first lady is closely watched for some hint of her husband’s thinking and for a clue to his future actions. The wife of the president played a public role from the founding of the U.S., but the title first lady did not come into general use until much later, near the end of the 19th century. By the end of the 20th century, the title had been absorbed into other languages and was often used, without translation, for the wife of a country’s leader—even in countries where the leader’s consort received far less attention and exerted much less influence than did her counterpart in the U.S. Although unpaid and unelected, she is able to influence behaviour and opinion, and some first ladies have used their influence to affect legislation on impor¬ tant matters such as temperance reform, housing improvement, and wom¬ en’s rights.
FIS See Islamic Salvation Front
Fischer-Dieskau Vfi-shor-'des-.kauX, Dietrich (b. May 28, 1925, Ber¬ lin, Ger.) German baritone and conductor. He had his first extensive per¬ formance experience as a prisoner of war in Italy, and he made his professional debut in 1947. One of the most remarkable singers of his time, he was equally successful in the often mutually exclusive realms of opera and lied. His lyrical voice was supported by his commanding pres¬ ence, intelligent musicianship, and superb artistry. He recorded most of the standard art-song repertoire, as well as numerous unusual and con¬ temporary works; his many premieres included Benjamin Britten’s War Requiem (1962).
fiscus Latin "basket" Treasury of the Roman emperor, so-called because the money was stored in baskets. Funds were also stored in the public treasury, the aerarium. The fiscus took in taxes from imperial prov¬ inces, forfeited property, and unclaimed lands. After Vespasian, it became independent of the aerarium and controlled most of the empire’s income, supplying funds for the army and fleet, official salaries, and postal sub¬ sidies.
fiscal policy Measures employed by governments to stabilize the economy, specifically by adjusting the levels and allocations of taxes and government expenditures. When the economy is sluggish, the government may cut taxes, leaving taxpayers with extra cash to spend and thereby increasing levels of consumption. An increase in public-works spending may likewise pump cash into the economy, having an expansionary effect. Conversely, a decrease in government spending or an increase in taxes tends to cause the economy to contract. Fiscal policy is often used in tan¬ dem with monetary policy. Until the 1930s, fiscal policy aimed at main¬ taining a balanced budget; since then it has been used “countercyclically,” as recommended by John Maynard Keynes, to offset the cycle of expan¬ sion and contraction in the economy. Fiscal policy is more effective at stimulating a flagging economy than at cooling an inflationary one, partly because spending cuts and tax increases are unpopular and partly because of the work of economic stabilizers. See also business cycle.
Fischer projection Method of representing the three-dimensional structures of molecules on a page, devised by Emil Fischer. By convention, horizontal lines represent bonds projecting from the plane of the paper toward the viewer, and vertical lines represent bonds projecting away from the viewer. Fischer projections are a convenient way to depict chiral mol¬ ecules (see optical activity) and distinguish between pairs of enantiomers (see racemate). They are most often used to depict isomers of the sugars. See also chemical formula.
Fischer, Bobby orig. Robert James Fischer (b. March 9, 1943, Chicago, Ill., U.S.) U.S. chess mas¬ ter. He became a grandmaster at age 15, then a record. In 1972 Fischer defeated Boris Spassky to become the only American to win the world chess championship. An intense and eccentric personality, he was a devout Christian fundamentalist who frequently condemned the Soviet Union for godlessness; he was deprived of his title in 1975 after refusing to meet his Soviet chal¬ lenger, Anatoly Karpov. He remained out of the game thereafter except for a victorious private rematch with Spassky in Yugoslavia in 1992; the game violated U.S. sanctions against Yugoslavia, and Fischer has remained abroad ever since.
Fischer, Emil (Hermann) (b. Oct. 9, 1852, Euskirchen, Prussia—d. July 15, 1919, Berlin, Ger.) German organic chemist. He received his Ph.D. in 1874. He determined the structures of uric acid, caffeine, and related compounds, showing that all are derivatives of a single compound he named purine. This led him to study protein structure and the ways in which amino acids are combined in proteins. He determined the molecu¬ lar structures of glucose, fructose, and many other sugars, verifying his results by synthesizing each, and distinguished the 15 stereoisomers of glucose (see isomer; configuration; optical activity). His researches into the sugars were of unparalleled importance to organic chemistry and earned him in 1902 the second Nobel Prize for Chemistry. His investigations of fermentation laid the foundations of enzyme chemistry.
Bobby Fischer, 1971.
AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS
fish Any of more than 24,000 species of cold-blooded vertebrates found worldwide in fresh and salt water. Living species range from the primi¬ tive lampreys and HAGFiSHes through the cartilaginous sharks, skates, and rays to the abundant and diverse bony FiSHes. Species range in length from 0.4 in. (10 mm) to more than 60 ft (20 m). The body is generally tapered at both ends. Most species that inhabit surface or midwater regions are streamlined or are flattened side to side; most bottom dwellers are flat¬ tened top to bottom. Tropical species are often brightly coloured. Most species have paired fins and skin covered with either bony or toothlike scales. Fish generally respire through gills. Most bony fishes have a swim bladder, a gas-filled organ used to adjust swimming depth. Most species lay eggs, which may be fertilized externally or internally. Fishes first appeared more than 450 million years ago.
opercle 1st dorsal fin 2nd dorsal fin
(gill cover) (spiny rays) (soft rays)
External features of a bony fish.
© MERRIAM-WEBSTER INC.
Fish, Hamilton (b. Aug. 3, 1808, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 6, 1893, New York City) U.S. secretary of state (1869-77). He served New York state as lieutenant governor (1847-48), governor (1849-50), and U.S. senator (1851-57). As secretary of state in the administration of Pres.
Ulysses S. Grant, he helped draft the Treaty of Washington (1871), which provided for international arbitration of the dispute with Britain over the Alabama claims; he also obtained an agreement with Spain regarding its seizure of the U.S. ship Virginius. As a respected member of Grant’s cabi¬ net, he worked to counter graft, improper appointments, and viola¬ tions of the civil liberties of African Americans.
Hamilton Fish.
fish duck See MERGANSER library of congress, Washington, d.c.
fish farming See aquaculture fish hawk See osprey
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678 i fish poisoning ► Fitzgerald
fish poisoning Illness from eating varieties of poisonous fishes. Most cases are caused by one of three toxins: ciguatera poisoning, from fishes in whose flesh dinoflagellates have produced toxins; tetraodon poisoning, from a nerve toxin in certain pufferlike fish (fugu); and scombroid poi¬ soning from spoilage bacteria in fish of the mackerel family. Shellfish poisoning from eating certain mussels, clams, and oysters has in some instances been traced to the plankton they sometimes feed on.