Freud \'froid\, Anna (b. Dec. 3, 1895, Vienna, Austria—d. Oct. 9, 1982, London, Eng.) Austrian-born British psychiatrist, founder of the field of child psychiatry. Daughter of Sigmund Freud, she pioneered in developing psychoanalytic theory and practice. In The Ego and Defense Mechanisms (1936), Freud called repression the principal human defense mechanism. This gave a strong, new impetus to the role of ego in psy¬ chology. She and her terminally ill father escaped Nazi-dominated Aus¬
tria for London in 1938. She co-wrote three books on the effects of war on children. A summation of her thoughts is found in Normality and Pathology in Childhood (1968).
Freud, Lucian (b. Dec. 8, 1922,
Berlin, Ger.) German-born British painter. Grandson of Sigmund Freud, he moved with his family to London when he was 10. He is known for sombre, realistic figure paintings that represent his subjects’ raw physical characteristics and inner tensions; his highly individualistic, coarse style makes no attempt to idealize its usually nude subjects. His work has been internationally influential in reviving a representational style. In 1993 he was awarded the Order of Merit.
Freud, Sigmund (b. May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire—d. Sept. 23, 1939, London, Eng.) Austrian neuropsychologist, founder of psychoanalysis, and one of the major intellectual figures of the 20th century. Trained in Vienna as a neurologist, Freud went to Paris in 1885 to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, whose work on hysteria led Freud to conclude that mental disorders might be caused purely by psy¬ chological rather than organic factors. Returning to Vienna (1886), Freud collaborated with the physician Josef Breuer (1842-1925) in further stud¬ ies on hysteria, resulting in the development of some key psychoanalytic concepts and techniques, including free association, the unconscious, resistance (later defense mechanisms), and neurosis. In 1899 he published The Interpretation of Dreams, in which he analyzed the complex sym¬ bolic processes underlying dream formation: he proposed that dreams are the disguised expression of unconscious wishes. In his controversial Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), he delineated the complicated stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, and phallic) and the for¬ mation of the Oedipus complex. During World War I, he wrote papers that clarified his understanding of the relations between the unconscious and conscious portions of the mind and the workings of the id, ego, and superego. Freud eventually applied his psychoanalytic insights to such diverse phenomena as jokes and slips of the tongue, ethnographic data, religion and mythology, and modern civilization. Works of note include Totem and Taboo (1913), Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920), The Future of an Illusion (1927), and Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). Freud fled to England when the Nazis annexed Austria in 1938; he died shortly thereafter. Despite the relentless and often compelling challenges mounted against virtually all of his ideas, both in his lifetime and after, Freud has remained one of the most influential figures in contemporary thought.
Freyberg Vfri-.borgN (of Wellington and of Munstead), Ber¬ nard Cyril Freyberg, 1st Baron (b. March 21, 1889, Richmond, Surrey, Eng.—d. July 4, 1963, Windsor, Berkshire) New Zealand military leader. He emigrated from Britain to New Zealand with his parents in 1891. He fought in many of the fiercest battles of World War I and at age 27 became the youngest brigadier general in the British army. He was commander in chief of New Zealand forces in World War II. After the war he served as governor-general of New Zealand (1946-52). In 1951 he was created a baron.
Freyja \'fra-yo\ Most important Norse goddess, one of a group of fer¬ tility deities called Vanir. Her father was the sea god Njord, and her brother and male counterpart was Freyr. She was the goddess of battle and death as well as love and fertility. Half the heroes slain in battle went to her domain, Folkvangr, the other half to Odin’s Valhalla. She taught a powerful magic to the Aesir, probably involving sexuality.
Freyr \'frar\ or Frey Vfra\ Norse god of peace, fertility, rain, and sun, one of a group of fertility deities called Vanir. The son of Njord and brother of Freyja, he was especially venerated in pre-Christian Sweden, where he was considered the progenitor of the royal line. The best-known story about him told of his love and lust for the giantess Gerd, who was wooed and won for him by his servant. His worship was believed to bring good weather and great wealth.
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Frick ► frigate I 713
Frick, Henry Clay (b. Dec. 19,1849, West Overton, Pa., U.S.—d. Dec. 2, 1919, New York, N.Y.) U.S. industrialist. He began building and oper¬ ating coke ovens in 1870 and organized his own company in 1871. From 1889 he served as chairman of Carnegie Steel Co., the world’s largest manufacturer of steel and coke. His role in the violent steel strike of 1892 in Homestead, Pa., provoked an anarchist to shoot and stab him, but he survived. He was instrumental in the formation of the U.S. Steel Corp. in 1901. A noted art collector and philanthropist, he bequeathed the Frick Collection to New York City. See also Andrew Carnegie.
friction Force that resists sliding or rolling of one solid object over another. Some friction is beneficial, such as the traction used to walk without slipping. Most friction, though, is undesirable opposition to motion, such as between moving parts of machines. For example, about 20% of the work done by an automobile engine is needed to overcome friction between moving parts. Friction is a result of attractive forces between the contact regions of two bodies, and the amount of friction is almost independent of the area of contact. Kinetic friction arises between surfaces in relative motion, static friction acts between surfaces at rest with respect to each other, and rolling friction occurs when an object rolls over a surface.
Friedan \fri-'dan\, Betty orig. Bettye Naomi Goldstein (b. Feb. 4, 1921, Peoria, Ill., U.S.—d. Feb. 4, 2006, Washington, D.C.) U.S. femi¬ nist. She attended Smith College and worked in New York before mar¬ rying and having children. Her dissatisfaction with her role as housewife prompted her to write The Feminine Mystique (1963), the work that sparked the modern American feminist movement. In 1966 she cofounded the National Organization for Women. Her later books include The Sec¬ ond Stage (1981), The Fountain of Age (1993), and the memoir Life So Far (2000).
Friedland Vfret-.lantV, Battle of (June 14, 1807) Victory against Rus¬ sia for Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars that led to the Peace of Tilsit. Near Friedland in eastern Prussia (modern Pravdinsk, Russia), an isolated French corps, greatly outnumbered, held off Russian attacks for nine hours while Napoleon concentrated his forces. He then attacked with 65,000 men, pushing half the Russian army into the village of Friedland, where they were killed or captured. A Prussian ally withdrew his forces from Konigsberg, which the French then occupied.
Friedman Vfred-monV Milton (b. July 31, 1912, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. Friedman studied at Rutgers and Columbia before join¬ ing the faculty of the University of Chicago in 1946. There he became the leading U.S. advocate of monetarism. He oversaw the economic tran¬ sition in Chile after the overthrow of Salvador Allende. In the 1980s his ideas were taken up by Pres. Ronald Reagan and Britain’s Margaret Thatcher. His many books include A Theory of the Consumption Function (1957) and Capitalism and Freedom (1962), both with his wife. Rose Friedman, and A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960 (1963) and Monetary Trends of the United States and the United King¬ dom (1981), with economist Anna Schwartz. He received the Nobel Prize in 1976.