Futurism Literary, artistic, and political movement. Futurism, which began in Italy about 1909, was marked especially by violent rejection of tradition and an effort to give formal expression to the dynamic energy and movement of mechanical processes. Its most significant results were in the visual arts and poetry. Futurism was first announced in a manifesto by Filippo Marinetti. The principal Italian Futurist artists were Giacomo Balia (1871-1958), Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carra (1881-1966), and Gino Severini (1883-1966). Russian Futurism, founded soon afterward by Vladimir Mayakovsky and Velimir Khlebnikov (1885-1922), went beyond the Italian model in its revolutionary political and social outlook. The movement’s influence had ceased to be felt by 1930.
futurology Study of current trends in order to forecast future develop¬ ments. The field originated in the “technological forecasting” developed near the end of World War II and in studies examining the consequences of nuclear conflict. Studies in the 1960s sought to anticipate future social patterns and needs. The Limits of Growth by Dennis Meadows, et al. (1972), focused on global socioeconomic trends, projecting a Malthusian vision in which the collapse of the world order would result if popula¬ tion growth, industrial expansion, pollution, food production, and natural- resource use continued at current rates. Later reports reiterated many of these concerns, with critics contending that futurologists’ models were flawed and futurologists responding that their analytic techniques were becoming increasingly sophisticated. Other notable works include Alvin Toffler’s Future Shock (1970), Daniel Bell’s The Coming of Post- Industrial Society (1973), Jonathan Schell’s The Fate of the Earth (1982), and Nigel Calder’s The Green Machines (1986).
Fuzhou or Fu-chou Vfu-'joN conventional Foochow Vfii-'chaCA/or- merly Minhow City (pop., 2003 est.: 1,387,266), capital of Fujian prov¬ ince, China. Located on the bank of the Min River, it was the capital of the kingdom of Yue in the 2nd century bc. Fuzhou, important militarily in the 1st century ad, came later under the Tang dynasty. During the Song dynasty (960-1279), it was a centre for overseas trade and also an impor¬ tant cultural centre. It reached its height of prosperity when it was opened as a treaty port after the Opium War of 1839-42. It is now a centre for industrial chemicals. In the city and nearby hills are notable examples of traditional Chinese architecture, including pagodas and temples.
Fuzuli \fu-zu-'le\, Mehmed bin Suleyman (b. c. 1495, Karbala 5 —d. 1556, Karbala 5 ) Turkish poet. Considered the greatest figure in classical Turkish literature, he composed poems with equal facility and elegance in Turkish, Persian, and Arabic. His works transcended the highly formalized Islamic literary aesthetic and influenced many poets up to the 19th century. His most famous poems include his rendition of the Muslim classic Leyla ve Mecnun, a celebrated allegory depicting the attraction of the human spirit for divine beauty. His two poetry antholo¬ gies, one in Azerbaijani Turkish and one in Persian, contain his most lyri¬ cal verses.
fuzzy logic Logic based on the concept of fuzzy sets, in which mem¬ bership is expressed in varying probabilities or degrees of truth—that is, as a continuum of values ranging from 0 (does not occur) to 1 (definitely occurs). As additional data are gathered, many fuzzy-logic systems are able to adjust the probability values assigned to different parameters. Because some such systems appear able to learn from their mistakes, they are often considered a crude form of artificial intelligence. The term and concept date from a 1965 paper by Lotfi A. Zadeh (born 1921). Fuzzy- logic systems achieved commercial application in the early 1990s. Advanced clothes-washing machines, for example, use fuzzy-logic sys-
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Fw 190 » Fyodor III I 723
terns to detect and adapt to patterns of water movement during a wash cycle, increasing efficiency and reducing water consumption. Other prod¬ ucts using fuzzy logic include camcorders, microwave ovens, and dish¬ washers. Other applications include expert systems, self-regulating industrial controls, and computerized speech- and handwriting- recognition programs.
Fw 190 See Focke-Wulf 190
Fyodor Vfyo-dorV I Russian Fyodor Ivanovich (b. May 31, 1557, Moscow, Russia—d. Jan. 7, 1598, Moscow) Tsar of Russia (1584-98) whose death ended the rule of the Rurik dynasty. The son of Ivan IV, Fyo¬ dor was feebleminded and took no part in the government, which was dominated by his wife’s brother, Boris Godunov. Godunov was respon¬ sible for the major achievements of Fyodor’s reign, including elevation of the metropolitan see of Russia to a patriarchate (1589), recovery of lands near the Gulf of Finland (1595), and strengthening of Russia’s con¬ trol over western Siberia and territory in the Caucasus. The childless Fyo¬ dor was succeeded by Godunov.
Fyodor II Russian Fyodor Borisovich Godunov (b. 1589—d. June 10, 1605, Moscow, Russia) Tsar of Russia for three months in 1605, during the Time of Troubles. The son and successor of Boris Godunov, Fyodor was immediately challenged by the first False Dmitry. After his military commander shifted his support to the pretender, Fyodor’s mother tried to take power. Her action angered the boyars, who provoked a Mos¬ cow mob to riot and murder Fyodor and his mother. The pretender then assumed the throne.
Fyodor III Russian Fyodor Alekseyevich (b. May 30, 1661, Mos¬ cow, Russia—d. April 27, 1682, Moscow) Tsar of Russia (1676-82). He ascended the throne on the death of his father, Alexis, but youth and poor health prevented him from actively participating in government. Various advisers dominated his administration, notably Vasily Golitsyn, who insti¬ tuted military reforms, limited the power of the aristocracy, and fostered the development of Western culture. The childless Fyodor was succeeded by his brother Ivan V and half brother Peter I, for whose widespread reforms Fyodor’s reign had laid the groundwork.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
724 i G. intestinalis ► Gabon
G. intestinalis See Giardia lamblia
Gabar Vga-bsrX Derogatory name applied to Iranian Zoroastrians. The word may derive from the Arabic kafir (“infidel”). After the Muslim con¬ quest of Persia in the 7th century bc, the Zoroastrians became an outcast minority, saddled with many social and economic disabilities. Since the 19th century they have received support from the Parsis of India. Perse¬ cuted after the Islamic fundamentalist revolution of 1978-79, they cur¬ rently number a few thousand. See also Zoroastrianism and Parsiism.
gabbro Any of several medium- or coarse-grained rocks that consist primarily of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Gabbros are found widely on the Earth and on the Moon. They are sometimes quarried for dimen¬ sion stone (“black granite”), but the direct economic value of gabbro is minor. Far more important are the nickel, chro mium, and platinum minerals that occur almost exclu¬ sively in association with gabbroic or related rocks Magnetite (iron) and ilmenite (titanium) are also found in gabbroic complexes.
Gabin \ga-'ba n \, Jean orig. Jean-Alexis Moncorge (b. May 17, 1904, Paris, France—d.
Nov. 15, 1976, Paris) French film actor. The son of a music-hall comedian, he began as a performer at the Folies-Bergere (1923). After making his film debut in 1931 he earned critical and popular acclaim in Maria Chapdelaine (1934), Pepe le moko (1937), Grand Illusion (1937), The Human Beast (1938), and Daybreak (1939), often portraying the silent, tough antihero surviving in a world of social outcasts. He appeared in several films as Georges Sime- non’s detective character, Inspector Maigret, and also in Speaking of Murder (1959), Money, Money, Money (1962), and The Upper Hand (1967).
gable Triangular section formed by a roof with two slopes, extending from the eaves to the ridge where the two slopes meet. It may be min¬ iaturized over a dormer window or entrance way. If the gable end projects above the roof level to form a parapet, the edge is often trimmed to form an ornamental silhouette (e.g., curved or stepped), as in Dutch town houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. In Asia, gables often feature pro¬ jecting roof tiles and grotesque sculptures of animals at the ridge and eaves.