Gargas Cave in southern France, discovered in 1887, containing murals from the Aurignacian Period. On its clay walls and ceiling are finger trac¬ ings and engraved pictures of wild horses, bison, and mammoths cut into the rock with a sharp tool. They may have functioned as magical images related to hunting and animal fertility. The most distinctive feature is the numerous human hand silhouettes painted in red and black, both as “nega¬ tive” prints (made by paint blown around and between the fingers while the hand is pressed against the wall) and as “positive” prints (made by hands dipped in paint). The oldest form of painting known (dating to c. 30,000 bc), hand silhouettes are widespread in the art of hunter-and- gatherer societies worldwide.
gargoyle Carved spout that drains water from a rooftop gutter. The Gothic gargoyle was usually a grotesque bird or animal sitting on the back of a cornice and projecting forward for several feet in order to throw the water far from the building. The term is often loosely applied to any gro¬ tesque or fantastic beast, such as the chimeres (chimeras) that decorate the parapets of Notre-Dame de Paris.
Garibaldi V.gar-s-'bol-deV, Giuseppe (b. July 4, 1807, Nice, French Empire—d. June 2, 1882, Caprera, Italy) Italian patriot and soldier of the Risorgimento. He came under the influence of Giuseppe Mazzini in 1834, took part in a failed mutiny intended to provoke a republican revolution in Piedmont, and escaped to France. He lived in exile in South America (1836-48) and learned guerrilla warfare tactics during liberation attempts in Brazil and Uruguay. He returned to Italy in 1848 with his small band of “Red Shirts” and fought in Milan in the war of independence against Austria. After Pope Pius IX fled Rome (1848), Garibaldi for a while defended the city from the French when they attempted to reinstate papal rule. His bold retreat through central Italy made him a well-known fig¬ ure. He lived in exile again until 1854, and in 1859 he led an army in another war against Austria. In 1860, with no government backing, he raised an army of about 1,000 men and attacked Sicily; by the end of his campaign, he commanded 30,000 men, with whom he seized Naples. He
James A. Garfield, 1880.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Garland ► Garrett I 737
handed all of southern Italy over to Victor Emmanuel II and hailed him as the first king of a united Italy. With secret support from Victor Emman¬ uel, he led unsuccessful campaigns into the Papal States in 1862 and
Garland City (pop., 2000:
215,768), northern Texas, U.S. Bor¬ dering Dallas, it was founded when two rival railroad communities,
Duck Creek and Embree, were con¬ solidated in 1887. Its economy is industrialized and supplemented by the farm crops grown on the nearby Blacklands Belt. Manufactures include electronic equipment, chemicals, and scientific instru¬ ments.
Garland, Judy orig. Frances Gumm (b. June 10, 1922, Grand Rapids, Minn., U.S.—d. June 22,
1969, London, Eng.) U.S. singer and film actress. Born into a family of vaudeville performers, she made her stage debut at age three. She toured with her sisters until making her debut in a short film, Every Sunday (1936). She was a hit in Broadway Melody of 1938 and starred as a wholesome girlfriend in nine films with Mickey Rooney, including Love Finds Andy Hardy (1938). She became an international star as Dor¬ othy in The Wizard of Oz (1939).
Among her other musical hits were Meet Me in St. Louis (1944), Easter Parade (1948), and Summer Stock (1950). Her sweet but powerful voice and emotional range made her a legendary concert performer. After record-breaking engagements at the London Palladium and New York’s Palace Theatre, she returned to the screen in triumph in A Star Is Born (1954), and she was acclaimed for her role in Judgment at Nuremberg (1961). Her life was troubled by bro¬ ken marriages and a reliance on drugs, which led to her early death. Her daughters, Liza Minnelli (by Vincente Minnelli) and Loma Luft, followed her to the musical stage.
Garland Sutra See Avatamsaka-sutra
garlic Bulbous perennial plant (Allium sativum ) of the lily family, native to central Asia and growing wild in Italy and southern France. The bulbs are used as a flavouring. A classic ingredient in many national cuisines, garlic has a powerful onionlike aroma and pungent taste; its wide use in the U.S. originated among European immigrant groups. Since ancient and medieval times it has been prized for its medicinal properties; it was for¬ merly carried as a charm against vampires and other evils. Garlic bulbs are used sliced or crushed to flavour sauces, stews, and salad dressings. The membranous skin of the garlic bulb encloses up to 20 edible bulb- lets called cloves. See also allium.
Garner, Erroll (Louis) (b. June 15,1921, Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.—d. Jan. 2, 1977, Los Angeles, Calif.) U.S. pianist and composer, one of the most virtuosic and popular pianists in jazz. Garner was influenced by Fats Waller and was entirely self-taught. He spelled Art Tatum in the latter’s trio in 1945 and subsequently formed his own three-piece group, achiev¬ ing commercial success with Concert by the Sea (1958), one of the best¬ selling albums in jazz. Like Waller and Tatum, Garner was adept at performing both with a rhythm section and unaccompanied, often estab¬ lishing great momentum with his sure sense of swing. His best-known composition is “Misty.”
Garner, John Nance (b. Nov. 22, 1868, Red River county, Texas, U.S.—d. Nov. 7, 1967, Uvalde, Texas) U.S. politician. He practiced law before serving in the U.S. House of Representatives (1903-33), where he rose to become speaker in 1931. Adept at backstage maneuvering, he sup¬
ported the graduated income tax and the Federal Reserve System. Elected vice president under Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 and 1936, he was a conservative in the New Deal administration; he broke with Roosevelt in his second term over Roosevelt’s attempt to pack (enlarge) the U.S. Supreme Court. He retired to his Texas ranch in 1941.
garnet Any of a group of common silicate minerals with identical crys¬ tal structure but highly variable chemical composition. Garnets are most often found in metamorphic rocks but also occur in certain types of igne¬ ous rocks, and, usually in minor amounts, in some sedimentary rocks. They may be colourless, black, or many shades of red and green. Garnets are hard, and they fracture with sharp edges. They are used as abrasives for fine sanding and polishing of wood, leather, glass, metals, and plas¬ tics, as sandblasting agents, and in nonskid surface coatings. Garnet is the birthstone for January. Garnets have been mined in New York, Maine, and Idaho in the U.S., the world’s leading producer; notable quantities have also been found in Australia, China, India, and elsewhere.
Garnet, Henry Highland (b. 1815, New Market, Md., U.S.—d. Feb. 13, 1882, Liberia) U.S. clergyman and abolitionist. Bom a slave, he escaped in 1824 to New York, where he became a Presbyterian minister. He joined the American Anti-Slavery Society and agitated for emancipa¬ tion; in a 1843 speech at a national convention of freedmen he called on slaves to revolt and murder their masters. The convention refused to endorse his radicalism, and he gradually turned more toward religion, serving as pastor in a number of Presbyterian pulpits during the next two decades. Late in life he favoured emigration of U.S. blacks to Africa. He was appointed U.S. minister to Liberia in 1881 but died within two months of his arrival in the African nation.
Gamier \gam-'ya\, Francis French Marie-Joseph-Francois Gamier (b. July 25, 1839, Saint-Etienne, France—d. Dec. 21, 1873, near Hanoi, Viet.) French naval officer, colonial administrator, and explorer. Son of an army officer, he joined the navy and participated in the French advance into southern Vietnam in 1861. An enthusiastic believer in France’s imperial destiny, he promoted the exploration of the Mekong River and took part in the first European expedition to enter the Chinese province of Yunnan from the south (1866-68). His account, Voy¬ age d’exploration en Indo-Chine, 1866-68 (1873), is a valuable record of the political and economic situation of the countries through which he passed. Summoned to Saigon in 1873 to rein in unauthorized trading with China, he instead tried to seize territory for France in northern Vietnam and was killed in the attempt.