genetics Study of heredity in general and of genes in particular. Modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who formulated the basic concepts of heredity. Walter S. Sutton proposed that chromosomes were the site of Mendel’s hereditary factors. The Hardy-Weinberg law estab¬ lished the mathematical basis for studying heredity in populations. Tho¬ mas Hunt Morgan provided evidence that genes occur on chromosomes and that adjacent genes on the same chromosome form linkage groups. Oswald Avery showed that DNA is the chromosome component that car¬ ries genetic information. DNA’s molecular structure was deduced by James D. Watson and Francis Crick. These and other developments led to the deciphering of the genetic code of the DNA molecule, which in turn made possible the recombination techniques of genetic engineering. An understanding of genetics is necessary for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of hereditary diseases, the breeding of plants and animals, and the development of industrial processes that use microorganisms. See also BEHAVIOUR GENETICS.
Geneva Vjo-'ne-vsX French Geneve \zha-'nev\ German Genf Vgenf\ Italian Ginevra \je-'na-vra\ City (pop., 2001 est.: urban agglom., 464,000), capital of Geneva canton, southwestern Switzerland. At the tip of Lake Geneva on the Rhone River, it was by the 6th century bc a centre of the Celtic Allobroges and was later conquered by the Romans. In the 16th century John Calvin transformed Geneva into a theocratic state and the intellectual centre of Protestant Europe. In the 18th century, as the birthplace of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the sanctuary of Voltaire, it attracted the elite of the Enlightenment. It joined the Swiss Confederation in 1814. It was the site of the Geneva Convention in 1864, and the League of Nations was founded there in 1919. An international hub of commerce and finance, it is the headquarters of the International Red Cross (1864) and the European branch of the United Nations.
Geneva, Lake French Lac Leman \Tak-la-'man\ German Genfer- see Vgen-for-.zaV Lake, on the border of southwestern Switzerland and southeastern France. About 134 sq mi (347 sq km) of the lake’s area is Swiss and 90 sq mi (234 sq km) French. Lying at an elevation of 1,220 ft (372 m), it is 45 mi (72 km) long with an average width of 5 mi (8 km). It is formed by the Rhone River, which enters at the eastern end and leaves at the western end through the city of Geneva. The water level is subject to fluctuations known as seiches, in which the lake’s water mass rhyth¬ mically swings from shore to shore.
Geneva, University of Institution of higher learning in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded by John Calvin and Theodor de Beze (1519— 1605) in 1559 as Schola Genevensis (later called the Academy), a theo¬ logical seminary. The natural sciences, law, and philosophy were later added to the curriculum, and in the 19th century a medical faculty was
established. In the 1930s the Institut Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a private school of education founded in 1912, became part of the university. Many foreign students are attracted by its strong reputation in international stud¬ ies, botany, and education.
Geneva Conventions Series of four international agreements (1864, 1906, 1929, 1949) signed in Geneva, Switz., that established the humani¬ tarian principles by which the signatory countries are to treat an enemy’s military and civilian nationals in wartime. The first convention was ini¬ tiated by Jean-Henri Dunant; it established that medical facilities were not to be war targets, that hospitals should treat all wounded impartially, that civilians aiding the wounded should be protected, and that the Red Cross symbol should serve to identify those covered by the agreement. The sec¬ ond convention amended and extended the first. The third stated that pris¬ oners of war should be treated humanely and that prison camps should be open to inspection by neutral countries. The 1949 conventions made further provisions for civilians falling into a belligerent’s hands. Guerrilla combatants were extended protection in two 1977 amendments, which the U.S. did not sign. Violations of the Geneva Conventions were among the crimes included in the jurisdictions of the international criminal tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (1993) and Rwanda (1994) and the International Criminal Court (2002). See also Hague Conventions; war crime.
Geneva Protocol officially Protocol for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes (1924) League of Nations draft treaty to ensure collective security in Europe. Submitted by Edvard Benes, the pro¬ tocol proposed sanctions against an aggressor nation and provided a mechanism for the peaceful settlement of disputes. States would agree to submit all disputes to the Permanent Court of International Justice, and any state refusing arbitration was to be deemed the aggressor. The French enthusiastically supported the protocol, but it failed after it was rejected by the British.
Geneva Summit (1955) Meeting in Geneva of the leaders of the U.S., France, Britain, and the Soviet Union that sought to end the Cold War. Such issues as disarmament, unification of Germany, and increased eco¬ nomic ties were discussed. Though no agreements were reached, the con¬ ference was considered an important first step toward easing Cold War tension.
Genghis Khan Vgeg-gos-'kan, 'jeq-gos-'kanX or Chinggis Khan \'chiq-g3z-'kan\ orig. Temujin (b. 1162, near Lake Baikal, Mongolia—d. Aug. 18, 1227) Mongolian warrior-ruler who consolidated nomadic tribes into a unified Mongolia and whose troops fought from China’s Pacific coast to Europe’s Adriatic Sea, creating the basis for one of the greatest continental empires of all time. The leader of a destitute clan, Temujin fought various rival clans and formed a Mongol confederacy, which in 1206 acknowledged him as Genghis Khan (“Universal Ruler”). By that year the united Mongols were ready to move out beyond the steppe. He adapted his method of warfare, moving from depending solely on cavalry to using sieges, catapults, ladders, and other equipment and techniques suitable for the capture and destruction of cities. In less than 10 years he took over most of Juchen-controlled China; he then destroyed the Mus¬ lim Khwarezm-Shah dynasty while his generals raided Iran and Russia. He is infamous for slaughtering the entire populations of cities and destroy¬ ing fields and irrigation systems but admired for his military brilliance and ability to learn. He died on a military campaign, and the empire was divided among his sons and grandsons.
genie See jinni
genius Person of extraordinary intellectual power. The genius displays originality, creativity, and the ability to think and work in areas not pre¬ viously explored. Though geniuses have usually left their unique mark in a particular field, studies have shown that the general intelligence of geniuses is also exceptionally high. Genius appears to be a function of both hereditary and environmental factors. See also gifted child.