Anglia See England
Anglican Communion See Church of England
Anglo-Afghan Wars See Afghan wars
Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-26, 1852, 1885) Conflicts between the British and the Burmans (Burmese) in present-day Myanmar. King Bodawpaya’s conquest of Arakan, which bordered on British-controlled territory in India, led to border conflicts between Arakan freedom fight¬ ers and the Burmans. When the Burmans crossed the border into Bengal, the British responded in force, taking Rangoon (now Yangon). The result¬ ing two-year conflict ended with a treaty that gave Britain Arakan and Assam and required the Burmans to pay an indemnity. Another war erupted 25 years later when a British naval officer seized a ship that belonged to the Burman king; the British advanced into and soon occu¬ pied all of Lower Burma. A third war was sparked by threats to the Brit¬ ish teak monopolies in Lower Burma and Burman overtures to the French; as a result, the British annexed Upper Burma (formalized in 1886), thus ending Burman independence.
Anglo-Dutch Wars or Dutch Wars Four naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic in the 17th—18th century. The First
(1652-54), Second (1665-67), and Third (1672-74) Anglo-Dutch Wars all arose from commercial rivalry between the two nations, and victories by England established its naval might. The two countries had been allied for a century when the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780-84) broke out over Dutch interference in the American Revolution. By 1784 the Dutch Repub¬ lic had declined dramatically in power and prestige.
Anglo-French Entente See Entente Cordiale Anglo-French War See Opium Wars
Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935) Bilateral concord between Britain and Germany countenancing a German navy but limit¬ ing it to 35% of the size of the British navy. Part of the process of appease¬ ment before World War II, the agreement allowed Germany to violate restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, prompting international criticism and driving a wedge between the French and the British.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902-23) Alliance between Britain and Japan to protect their respective interests in China and Korea. Directed against Russian expansionism, the alliance helped Japan in the Russo- Japanese War by discouraging France from entering the war on the Rus¬ sian side. The alliance later prompted Japan to enter World War I on the side of the Allies. Britain allowed the alliance to lapse after the war, when it no longer feared Russian encroachment in China.
Anglo-Russian Entente \an-'tant\ (1907) Pact in which Britain and Russia settled their colonial disputes in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. It delineated spheres of influence in Persia, stipulated that neither country would interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs, and recognized Britain’s influ¬ ence over Afghanistan. The agreement led to the formation of the Triple Entente.
Anglo-Saxon See Old English
Anglo-Saxon art Painting, sculpture, and architecture produced in Britain from the late 5th century to the Norman Conquest. Before the 9th century, manuscript illumination was the predominant art form, with two schools: Canterbury produced works in the Classical tradition brought by Roman missionaries; a more influential school in Northumbria produced works inspired by the revival of learning encouraged by Irish missionar¬ ies. The curvilinear forms, spirals, and interlaced patterns of the Celtic tradition brought by Irish monks were integrated with the abstract orna¬ mentation and bright colors of the Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition. After the destructive effects of the 9th-century Danish invasions, the monaster¬ ies were revived and interest in architecture developed. Building activity consisted of small churches influenced by continental types, notably from Norman France (e.g., the original Westminster Abbey, c. 1045-50, rebuilt 1245). The monastic revival resulted in the production of many books and the formation of the Winchester school of illumination (late 10th cen¬ tury). See also Hiberno-Saxon style.
Anglo-Saxon law Body of legal principles that prevailed in England from the 6th century until the Norman Conquest (1066). It was directly influenced by early Scandinavian law as a result of the Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries and indirectly influenced (primarily through the church) by Roman law. Anglo-Saxon law had three components: laws promulgated by the king, customary practices such as those regulating kinship relations, and private compilations. The primary emphasis was on criminal law, though certain material dealt with problems of public admin¬ istration, public order, and ecclesiastical matters.
Anglo-Saxon literature Literature written in Old English c. 650-c. 1100. Anglo-Saxon poetry survives almost entirely in four manuscripts. Beowulf is the oldest surviving Germanic epic and the longest Old English poem; other great works include The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Battle of Maldon, and the Dream of the Rood. The poetry is alliterative; one of its features is the kenning, a metaphorical phrase used in place of a com¬ mon noun (e.g., “swan road” for “sea”). Notable prose includes the Anglo- Saxon Chronicle, a historical record begun about the time of King Alfred’s reign (871-899) and continuing for more than three centuries. See also Caedmon; Cynewulf.
Angola officially Republic of Angola formerly Portuguese West Africa Country, southern Africa. Its northernmost section of coastland, the Cabinda exclave, is separated from Angola proper by a nar¬ row corridor of Congo territory. Area: 481,354 sq mi (1,246,700 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 11,827,000. Capitaclass="underline" Luanda. The population is made up of mostly BANTU-speaking peoples; the main ethnic groups are
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74 I Angora ► Anheuser
the Ovimbundu and the Mbundu, while the Khoisan-speaking San (Bushmen) inhabit southeastern Angola. Languages: Portu¬ guese (official), indigenous languages.
Religions: Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic; also Protestant); also traditional beliefs. Currency: kwanza. The country contains several plateau regions, which separate it into three dis¬ tinct drainage systems. One in the northeast drains into the Congo River basin, and another in the southeastern sector drains into the Zambezi sys¬ tem; the remaining drainage, westward into the Atlantic, provides most of Angola’s hydroelectric power. About half of the land area is forest; less than 10% is arable. Despite substantial petroleum reserves, Angola’s economy has been unable to take advantage of its resources, because of the devastation caused by protracted civil war. Angola is nominally a republic with one legislative house; its head of state and government is the president. An influx of Bantu-speaking peoples in the 1st millennium ad led to their dominance in the area by c. 1500. The most important Bantu kingdom was the Kongo; south of the Kongo was the Ndongo kingdom of the Mbundu people. Portuguese explorers arrived in the early 1480s and over time gradually extended their rule. Angola’s frontiers were largely determined by other European powers in the 19th century but not without strong resistance by the indigenous peoples. Resistance to colo¬ nial rule led to the outbreak of fighting in 1961, which led ultimately to independence in 1975. Rival factions continued fighting after indepen¬ dence. Although a peace accord was reached in 1994, forces led by Jonas M. Savimbi continued to resist government control until his death in 2002, after which a peace accord was signed.
Angora See Ankara
Angora cat See Turkish Angora cat
Angora goat Breed of domestic goat that originated in ancient times in the district of Angora in Asia Minor. Its silky coat yields commer¬ cial mohair. Angora goats are gener¬ ally smaller than other domestic goats and sheep and have long, drooping ears. Both sexes are homed. The Western mohair indus¬ try developed after the animal was established in South Africa in the mid-19th century. Importation to the U.S. followed shortly, and breeding there has centred in the Southwest.